REVISED     EDITION 


LESSONS 


IN    THE 


it     IJ  I  1  Lit 


FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES 


BY 

ALPHONSO    WOOD,    A.M.,    Pn.D 

\N 

LATE  PROF.  OF  BOTANY  IN  THE  COLLEGE  OF  PHARMACY,  NEW  YORK  ;  AUTHOR  OF  THE 

CLASS-BOOK  OF  BOTANY,  ETC 


REVISED   AND    EDITED   BY 

OLIVER    R.    WILLIS,    A.M.,    Pn.D 

INSTRUCTOR   OF    NATURAL   HISTORY   IN   THE   ALEXANDER    INSTITUTE  J    AUTHOR   OF   PLANTS   OF 
NEW  JERSEY  AND   FLORA   OF   WESTCHESTER   CO.,   N.   Y 


W7BRSXTY 


YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  -:.  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN      BOOK      COMPANY 


PROM   THE    PRESS   OF 

A.    S.     BARNES    <&    CO. 


BIOLOGt 
LIBRARY 

WOOD'S     BOTANIES. 


OBJECT  LESSONS  IN  BOTANY,  pp.  340,  12mo.  An  introduction  to  the 
Science,  full  of  lively  description  and  truthful  illustrations  ;  with  a  limited  Flora,  but 
a  complete  System  of  Analysis. 

THE  BOTANIST  AND  FLORIST,  pp.  620,  12mo.  A  thorough  text-book,  com- 
prehensive and  practical  ;  with  a  Flora,  and  System  of  Analysis  equally  complete. 
"  I  have  been  deeply  impressed,  almost  astonished  (writes  Prof.  A.  Winchell,  of 
University  of  Michigan),  at  the  evidence  which  this  work  bears  of  skillful  and 
experienced  authorship—  nice  and  constant  adaptation  to  the  wants  and  conveniences 
of  students  in  Botany,"  etc. 

REVISED  LESSONS  IN  THE  LIFE  AND  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS. 
These  Lessons  constitute  the  introductory  part  of  the  "Botanist  and  Florist."  The 
chapters  on  Structure  and  Morphology  have  been  revised,  and  those  on  Histology  and 
Physiology  rewritten.  The  Lessons  will  still  be  the  introduction  to  the  "  Botanist 
and  Florist  ;  "  they  will  also  be  published  separately  in  a  book  of  about  200  pp.,  and 
present  the  subject  to  the  student  in  a  clear,  concise  manner.  They  will  be  a 
suitable  companion  and  introduction  to  any  of  the  Manuals  of  the  Floras  of  the 
several  parts  of  the  country. 

THE  CLASS-BOOK  OF  BOTANY,  pp.  850,  8vo.  The  principles  of  the  Science 
more  fully  announced  and  illustrated—  the  Flora  and  Analysis  complete,  with  all  our 
plants  portrayed  in  language  both  scientific  and  popular.  "  The  whole  science  (writes 
Prof.  G.  H.  Perkins,  of  Vermont  University),  so  far  as  it  can  be  taught  in  a  college 
course,  is  well  presented,  and  rendered  unusually  easy  of  comprehension.  I  regard 
the  work  as  most  admirable." 

THE  PLANT  RECORD—  a  beautiful  book,  for  classes  and  amateurs,  showing,  in 
a  few  pages,  how  to  analyze  a  plant—  any  plant,  and  furnishing  tablets  for  the  sys- 
tematic record  of  the  analysis. 

FLORA  ATLANTICA,  OP  WOOD'S  DESCRIPTIVE  FLORA,  pp.  448, 
12mo.  This  work  is  equivalent  to  the  Part  IV  of  the  Botanist  and  Florist,  being  a 
succinct  account  of  all  the  plants  growing  East  of  the  Mississippi  River,  both  native 
and  cultivated,  with  a  system  of  analytical  tables  well-nigh  perfect. 

WOOD'S  BOTANICAL  APPARATUS—  a  complete  outfit,  for  the  field  and  the 
herbarium.  It  consists  of  a  portable  trunk,  a  Wire  Drying  Press,  a  Knife-trowel,  a 
Microscope,  and  Forceps. 


•'•FOURTEEN  WEl£KS"  IN  EACH  SCIENCE. 

.*\  :  •  .  •  :  *i"'T-'  GORMAN  STBFLE,  PH.D.,  LL.D.,  F.  G.  S.,  Etc. 

I  •    ;••",„*•• 

27bw  Ready  : 


PHILOSOPHY. 
CHEMISTRY. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 
GEOLOGY. 


ZOOLOGY. 
ASTRONOMY. 


A  KEY  to  Practical  questions  in  Steeds  Works. 
Seven  volumes :  each,  post-paid, 


COPYRIGHT,  1870  AND  1889,  by  A.  S.  BARNES  &  Co. 


EDITOR'S    PREFACE. 

DR.  WOOD'S  "Lessons  in  the  Structure  and  Growth  of 
Plants"  was  designed  for  an  introduction  to  this  delightful 
department  of  Natural  History,  and  to  qualify  the  student  in 
Botany  to  make  intelligent  use  of  a  Flora.  The  book  is  well 
known  to  educators,  and  the  instructors  in  our  high-schools  and 
colleges  have  acknowledged  its  worth  and  conferred  upon  it  the 
highest  degree  of  approval  by  using  it  as  a  text-book. 

It  was  written  more  than  twenty  years  ago ;  since  then  im- 
proved methods  of  examination,  with  the  aid  of  new  microscopical 
appliances,  have  revealed  much  in  all  departments  of  biology,  and 
especially  in  the  structure  and  formation  of  plant-tissues. 

These  discoveries  have  introduced  in  some  parts  new  and  in 
others  additional  names. 

To  bring  the  work  to  the  advanced  state  of  the  science,  the 
chapters  on  Organography  have  been  revised,  and  the  parts  on 
Histology  and  Physiology  have  been  entirely  rewritten  and 
newly  illustrated,  and  the  whole  reset  in  fresh  and  modern  type. 

The  third  chapter  of  the  Introduction  has  been  recast,  en- 
larged, and  newly  illustrated. 

In  preparing  the  parts  that  are  rewritten,  the  Editor  has 
aimed  not  to  enlarge,  but  rather  to  be  more  concise  than  the 
Author  was  upon  the  same  subjects,  believing  that  in  a  text-book 
brief  and  clear  statement  is  more  acceptable  to  the  teacher  and 
useful  to  the  learner  than  lengthy  discussion. 

The  chapters  and  sections  on  Structure,  or  Organography, 
have  been  revised  as  to  nomenclature ;  but  otherwise  have  not 
been  disturbed,  and  the  sequence  of  subjects  has  been  preserved. 

The  Index  and  Glossary  have  been  altered  and  enlarged,  to 
suit  the  additional  and  revised  matter;  the  words  in  the  Glossary 
have  been  divided  and  accented  to  correspond  with  the  latest 
authorities  on  Pronunciation. 


iv  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

It  was  the  intention  of  the  Author  that  this  work  should  be  a 
text-book  suited  to  the  needs  of  students  in  our  Academies, 
High-schools,  and  Colleges,  intending  his  "  Object  Lessons  in 
Botany"  to  meet  the  wants  of  younger  pupils;  hence,  in  the 
changes  that  have  been  made  this  design  has  been  kept  in  view. 

The  work  now,  with  its  revision,  new  matter,  additional  illus- 
trations, and  fresh  type,  is  substantially  a  new  book. 

Its  original  character  for  educational  purposes  has  been  care- 
fully preserved  and  in  several  features  improved.  It  is  in  its  new 
form  a  suitable  introduction  and  companion  to  any  of  the  man- 
uals of  the  Flora  of  North  America. 

It  affords  the  Editor  great  pleasure  to  record  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  obligations  to  his  personal  friends  among  the  botanists 
of  New  York  and  vicinity  for  their  sympathy  in  the  work. 

He  is  especially  indebted  to  Dr.  Geo.  Macloskie,  Senior  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany  and  Zoology  in  the  John  C.  Green  School  of 
Science,  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  for  efficient  aid  and  judi- 
cious criticism,  upon  the  subjects  of  Histology  and  Physiology, 
where  the  statements  are  based  upon  microscopic  examination. 

His  gratitude  is  due  to  Dr.  John  S.  Newberry,  of  Columbia 
College,  for  his  kind  suggestions  and  encouragement. 

Also  to  Hon.  Judge  A.  Brown  and  to  Mr.  "W.  H.  Budkin,  of 
New  York,  for  their  kind  and  valuable  advice. 

O.  R.  WILLIS,  EDITOR. 
WHITE  PLAINS,  NEW  YOBK, 
March,  1889. 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    TEACHERS. 

AN  enlightened  instructor  is  disappointed,  on  opening  a  text-book,  if  lie 
does  not  find  some  hint  from  the  author  as  to  the  mode  of  using  it. 

Our  best  teachers  of  Botany  differ  as  to  what  should  be  the  subject  first 
presented  to  the  pupil's  notice. 

One  would  commence  with  the  SEED  ;  another,  with  the  FLOWER  ;  a  third, 
with  HISTOLOGY  and  PHYSIOLOGY. 

These  Lessons  are  so  arranged  that  the  learner  may  commence  either 
with  the  Flower,  which  would  lead  through  Organography,  or  Structural 
Botany,  up  to  the  Seed ;  or,  if  the  teacher  prefer,  he  can  have  his  class  com- 
mence with  the  Second  part,  which  treats  of  the  Cells  and  Vessels  that  build 
up  plants  and  trees. 

In  either  case,  we  advise  that  the  four  chapters  which  make  up  the  intro- 
duction be  carefully  studied,  by  using  them  as  reading  and  talking  lessons, 
With  simple  illustrations,  until  they  are  well  understood. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS: 


TOGETHER   WITH    A  SYLLABUS   OF    THE    MORE    PRACTICAL    SUB- 

JECTS,  DESIGNED  AS  EXERCISES  ON   THE  BLACKBOARD, 

PRELIMINARY  TO  THE  LESSONS. 


N.  B.— We  give  the  Syllabus  of  but  a  few  Chapters •,  and  of  fewer  entire^  in  order  that  the 
pupil  maty  exercise  his  own  skill  in  supplying  deficiencies.  The  teacher  should  require 
this.  The  abbreviation  (etc.)  indicates  a  table  unfinished. 

INTRODUCTION Page  9 

CHAPTER  I.    Aids  to  the  Study  of  Botany 9 

CHAPTER  II.    Departments  of  Science 11 

*  Existence,  individually ;  (§  13.) 

a  As  an  inorganic  mass,  is A  Mineral. 

6  As  an  organic  body, 

—Endowed  with  life A  Plant. 

— Endowed  with  life  and  perception •     An  Animal. 

*  Existence,  collectively,  Nature.    (§  12),  etc. 

*  Existence,  objectively,  Science.    (§  16-18),  etc. 

*  Department  of  Botany.    (§  19-23),  etc. 

*  Classification.    (§  27-30),  etc. 

*  Nomenclature.    (§  25,  26.) 

a  Local  appellatives  in  common  use Trivial  Names. 

b  Universal  appellatives  adopted  in  Science Latin  Names. 

—The  name  of  the  Genus Generic. 

—The  name  of  the  Species Specific. 

—The  name  of  the  Individual Proper. 

CHAPTER  HI.    Stages  of  Plant  Life 15 

First  Stage;  asleep  in  the  Seed Embryo. 

Second  Stage ;  development. 

—a  Awakening  and  beginning  to  grow Germination. 

— b  Developing  leaves  and  branches Vegetation. 


CONTENTS. 


v  v  •  • "  :  *    •  '  -'      *  •  i 

Third  Stage ;  leaves  transformed  to  flowers Flowering. 

Fourth  Stage;  maturity. 

—c  Flowers  maturing  into  fruit Fructification. 

— d  Fruit  ripe  and  the  plant  exhausted.    Hibernation Death. 

CHAPTER  TV.  Term  of  Plant  Life 20 

§  Plant  fruiting  but  once,  and 

—a  Dying  in  its  first  year ©  Annual  Herb. 

— b  Dying  after  its  second  year @  Biennial  Herb. 

— c  Dying  after  many  years Monocarpic. 

§  Plant  fruiting  more  than  once  (perennial), 

a  With  annual  stems,  is  a V  Perennial  Herb. 

b  With  perennial  stems  becoming  woody. 

1,  It  lower  than  or  equaling  the  human  stature Undershrub. 

2,  If  taller,  7  to  20  feet  high Shrub. 

3,  If  still  taller,  with  a  distinct  trunk A  Tree. 

t  Trees  with  annual  foliage,  shed  in  Autumn Deciduous. 

t  Trees  with  perennial  foliage Fvergreen. 

PART  FIRST.— STRUCTURAL,  BOTANY,  OR  ORGANOGRAPHY 23 

CHAPTER  I.    The  Flower.    It  may  consist  of 23 

a  The  leafy  Envelopes,  or  Perianth,  in  2  whorls  or  sets. 

1,  The  outer  circle,  of  Sepals,  usually  green Calyx. 

2,  The  inner  circle,  of  Petals,  usually  colored Corolla. 

6  The  Essential  Organs,  also  in  2  whorls  or  sets. 

3,  An  outer  set,  of  Stamens,  within  the  corolla Androecium. 

4,  The  inner  and  central  set,  of  Pistils Grynoecium. 

e  The  base,  or  platform  on  which  these  organs  stand. Torus. 

CHAPTER  LI.    Plan  of  the  Flower.— The  Typical  Flower 25 

1,  Consisting  of  4  whorled  sets  of  organs,  is Complete. 

2,  Each  set  having  the  same  number  of  parts Symmetrical. 

3,  The  parts  composing  each  set  uniform Regular. 

4,  All  the  parts  separate  and  distinct  from  each  other Free. 

5,  Parts  of  adjacent  sets  alternating  in  position Alternate. 

CHAPTERS  m.  and  IV.    Anomalous  Flowers.    Deviations  from  the  Type.  28 

1,  Variations  in  the  Radical  Number From   ^  to   ^ 

2,  Deficiencies,  rendering  the  flower 

a  Incomplete. 

—Corolla  wanting Apetalous. 

— Corolla  and  calyx  both  wanting Naked. 

6  Imperfect. 

—The  stamens  wanting «  Pistillate. 

—The  pistils  wanting $  Staminate. 


CONTENTS.  3 

c  Unsymmetrical,  from  the  suppression  of  a  part  of  some  set. 
d  Organs  opposite,  from  the  suppression  of  some  entire  set. 

3,  Redundancies. 

a  Organs  increased  in  number, 

—By  multiples Multiplication. 

—By  clusters Chorisis. 

b  Appendages. 

—Horn-like  nectaries  projecting  backward Spurs. 

—Attached  to  the  inside  of  the  petals Scales. 

-Enlarged  scales , Crown. 

—Glandular  bodies Glands. 

4,  Union  of  Parts. 

a  By  Cohesion. 

—Petals  united Gamopetalous,  or  Monopetalous. 

—Stamens  united Monadelphous. 

—Pistils  united Compound. 

b  By  Adhesion. 

—Parts  blended  with  the  Calyx Perigynous. 

—Parts  blended  with  the  Ovary Epigynous. 

5,  Irregularities.— Torus  lengthened,  excavated,  etc. 

— Like  organs,  becoming  unequal  in  size,  etc. 

CHAPTER  V.    Of  the  Moral  Envelopes,  or  Perianth 36 

CHAPTER  VI.    Forms  of  the  Perianth 41 

1,  Dialypetalous,  or  Polypetalous. 

*  Regular. 

—a  Four  long-clawed  petals  spreading  at  right-angles.. Cruciferous. 

—b  Five  short-clawed  spreading  petals Rosaceous. 

— cFive  spreading  petals  on  long  erect  claws... Caryophyllaceous. 
— d  A  6-leaved  gradually  spreading  perianth Liliaceous. 

*  Irregular. 

— e  Five  petals,  2  pairs  and  an  odd  one Papilionaceous. 

—f  Six  petals,  one  of  them  lip-like Orchidaceous. 

2,  Gamopetalous,  or  Monopetalous.    (§  102.) 

*  Regular. 

—a  Tube  very  short,  border  flat,  spreading Rotate. 

—b  Tube  very  short,  border  wide,  concave,  Cup-form,  etc.,  etc. 

*  Irregular. 

— c  Cylindrical  tube  split  down,  etc.    (§  103.) 
§  Transformations  of  the  Perianth.    (§  104-108.) 

1,  In  the  Composite.    A  circle  of  dry  scales  or  bristles Pappus. 

2,  In  the  Bog-Rushes.    A  circle  of  6  (more  or  less)  bristles Setse. 

3,  In  the  Sedges  (Carices).    A  bottle-shaped  envelope Perigynium. 

4,  In  the  Grasses.    Chaff -like  coverings Glunus,  and  Pales. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VH.    Attributes  of  the  Essential  Organs.— Parts 46 

1,  In  respect  to  Number.— a  etc.    (§  118,  two  conditions.) 

2,  In  position. 

—a  On  the  torus,  free  from  all  other  organs Hypogynous. 

—6  Adherent  to  the  calyx,  etc.    (§  119,  four  other  conditions.) 

3,  In  cohesions. 

—a  United  into  one  set,  etc.    (§  120,  five  modes.) 

CHAPTER  VUL    The  Pistils.-Its  Parts  (§  125) 52 

1,  The  simple  ovary. 

—a  Encloses  a  single  cavity Its  Cell. 

— *  Produces  little  buds  becoming  seeds Ovules. 

— c  And  two  fleshy  ridges  bearing  the  ovules Placentae. 

2,  The  compound  ovary. 

—a  May  contain  as  many  cells  as  carpels. 

— b  Must  have  2  (or  a  double)  placentae  in  each  cell. 

— c  And  an  equal  number  of  ovules  in  each  cell. 

3,  The  number  of  carpels  in  a  compound  ovary  is  known— 

1,  By  the  number  of  distinct  styles,  if  any. 

2,  By  the  number  of  distinct  stigmas. 

3,  By  the  number  of  the  cells ;  or,  if  there  be  but  one, 

4,  By  the  number  of  external  lobes,  angles,  or  sutures. 

CHAPTER  IX.    The  Ovules 58 

CHAPTER  X.    The  Fruit.— Pericarp.— Dehiscence 60 

CHAPTER  XI.    Forms  of  the  Pericarp.    (See  Syllabus,  §  150) 64 

CHAPTER  XH.    The  Seed 69 

CHAPTER  XTTT.    Germination 74 

CHAPTER  XIV.    The  Boot,  or  Descending  Axis.— Forms 78 

*  Axial  Boots,  or  Tap-Boots,  having  the  main  axis  developed. 

1,  The  woody  tap-root  of  most  trees,  branching Bamous. 

2,  Tuberous  tap-roots. 

—a  Shaped  like  a  spindle  (Beet) Fusiform. 

— J  Shaped  like  a  cone  (Carrot) Conical 

— c  Shape  rounded  or  depressed  (Turnip) Napiform. 

*  Inaxial  Boots,  having  only  the  branches  developed. 

3,  Boot  consisting  of  numerous  thread-like  divisions Fibrous. 

4,  Boot  nbro-tuberous. 

—a  Some  of  the  fibers  thickened Fasciculate. 

— *  Fibers  abruptly  knotted Nodulous. 

— c  The  knots  at  regular  intervals Monilif orm . 

—d  Fibers  bearing  little  tubers  Tubercular. 


CONTENTS.  5 

CHAPTER  XV.    Of  the  Stem,  or  Ascending  Axis 84 

CHAPTER  XVI.    Forms  of  the  Leaf -Stems,  aerial,  caulescent 88 

1,  Jointed,  or  hollow  stems  of  Grasses,  Sedges,  Canes Culm. 

2,  The  stout  woody  stem  of  Trees,  covered  with  bark Trunk. 

3,  The  woody,  simple  columns  of  Palms,  etc.,  without  bark Caudex. 

4,  Weak,  slender  stems,  climbing  or  trailing Vine. 

CHAPTER  XVII.    Forms  of  Scale-Stems,  acaulescent 92 

1,  Slender,  prostrate,  rooting,  on  or  in  the  ground Creeper. 

2,  Fleshy,  thick,  rooting,  mostly  under  ground  —  A .  . .( Rhizome. 

3,  Swollen  with  starch,  under  ground,  with  buds  (eyes) Tuber. 

4,  Bulbous,  solid,  with  thin  scales,  under  ground Corm. 

5,  Bulbous,  consisting  mostly  of  thick  scales Bulb. 

CHAPTER  XVIII.  The  Leaf -Bud.  Vernation  (and  Estivation,  Chap.  XXTV)  97 

*  Separate ;  regarding  a  single  leaf  (petal  or  sepal)  in  bud. 

1,  Leaf  flat,  neither  folded  nor  rolled  in  the  bud Open. 

2,  Bent  forward,  apex  toward  the  base Reclined. 

3,  Folded  on  the  axis Conduplicate. 

4,  Folded  in  plaits  like  a  fan Plicate. 

5,  Boiled  on  its  axis  downward Circinate. 

6,  Rolled  with  its  axis. 

—a  From  one  edge  into  a  scroll Convolute. 

— b  From  both  edges  inward Involute. 

— c  From  both  edges  backward Revolute. 

*  General ; — regarding  the  whole  bud. 

1,  Edges  meeting,  Valvate. 

— With  the  margins  straight Valvate. 

—With  the  margins  involute Induplicate. 

— With  the  margins  revolute Reduplicate. 

2,  One  edge  overlapping,  each  leaf  oblique  —  Twisted  or  Contorted. 

3,  Both  edges  overlapping,  Imbricate. 

a  Conduplicate  leaves,  alternately. 

— Embracing Equitant. 

—Half  embracing Obvolute. 

6  Leaves  in  threes,  one  of  them  exterior Triauetrous. 

c  Leaves  in  fives,  two  of  them  exterior Quincuncial. 

d  Each  leaf  or  petal  embracing  all  those  within Convolute. 

e  Exterior  petal  largest  (Sweet  Pea) Vexillary. 

4,  Gamopetalous  corolla  folded  in  plaits. 

—Plaits  straight Plicate. 

—Plaits  oblique Supervolute. 

CHAPTER  XIX.    Of  the  Leaf .— Phyllotaxy 102 


6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XX.    Morphology  of  the  Leaf .— §  Venation 106 

1,  Veins  simple  and  parallel,  as  in  the  Endogens Parallel- veined. 

2,  Veins  dividing  without  uniting  again,  as  in  Ferns Fork- veined. 

3,  Veins  netted,  as  in  the  Exogens,  viz. : 

a  Larger  veins  arranged  as  in  a  feather Pinni- veined. 

6  Larger  veins  5  to  9,  arranged  as  the  fingers Pahni- veined. 

c  Larger  veins  only  3,  arranged  as  the  fingers Triple-veined. 

§  Special  Veins. 

1,  In  feather-veined  leaves. 

—The  chief  vein  forming  the  axis Mid-vein. 

—Lateral  branches  of  the  mid-vein Veinlets. 

— The  branches  of  the  veinlets ^ Veinulets. 

2,  In  palmi-veined  leaves,  or  triple-veined. 

a  The  coequal  veins  running  through  the  blade,  are Veins 

b  The  branches  of  the  veins,  are  (as  in  feather- veined) Veinlets, 

CHAPTER  XXT.    Forms  of  Leaves.    (Morphology,  continued) 112 

*  Pinni-veined  Leaves. 

a  Lower  veinlets  longer  than  the  upper. 

1,  Outline  of  an  egg Ovate. 

2,  Outline  of  a  lance,  or  narrow-ovate Lanceolate. 

3,  Form  of  the  Greek  letter  A Deltoid. 

ft  The  middle  veinlets  longest,  lower  and  upper  equal. 

4,  Circular,  or  nearly  so Orbicular. 

5,  Outline  of  an  elliptic  spring Elliptical. 

6,  Egg-shaped,  with  equal  rounded  ends Oval. 

7,  Narrowly  oval,  with  obtuse  ends Oblong. 

The  upper  veinlets  longest. 

8,  Inversely  ovate,  narrower  at  the  base Obovate. 

9,  Inversely  lanceolate,  narrower  at  the  base  Oblanceolate. 

10,  Obtuse  at  apex,  narrowed  to  the  base Spatulate. 

11,  Shaped  like  a  wedge,  the  point  at  base Cuneate. 

d  Lowest  veinlets  longest  and  recurved. 

12,  A  re-entering  angle,  or  sinus,  at  base.    Heart-shaped.  .Cordate. 

13,  Base-lobes  ear-shaped Auriculate. 

14,  Base-lobes  arrow-shaped Sagittate. 

15,  Base-lobes  turned  outward Hastate. 

*  Dissected  Forms. 

a  Pinnately  cut  or  divided. 

1,  With  regular  lateral  segments Pinnatifid. 

2,  With  segments  recurved  or  hooked Buncinate. 

3,  Terminal  segment  enlarged ' Lyrate. 

4,  Segments  many  and  narrow Pinnatisect. 

5,  Segments  and  sinuses  rounded Sinuate. 

&  Palmately  cut  or  lobed. 


CONTENTS.  7 

6,  Lobes  only  3 Trilobate. 

7,  Lobes  5  or  more Palmately-lobed. 

8,  Lobes  deeply  divided .Palmately-parted. 

9,  Side-lobes  again  2-lobed Pedate. 

CHAPTER  XXII.    Forms  of  Compound  Leaves 118 

*  Pinnately  compound. 

a  Once  compounded,  consisting  of— 

1,  Two  leaflets  opposite  and  equal Binate. 

2,  Three  leaflets,  the  odd  one  petiolulate Pinnately-trifoliate. 

3,  Four  or  more  equal  leaflets,  all  in  pairs Equally  pinnate. 

4,  Five  or  more  equal  leaflets,  all  but  one  in  pairs.. Odd-pinnate. 

5,  Alternate  leaflets  smaller — Interruptedly  pinnate. 

b  Twice  compounded,  consisting  of— 

6,  Nine  leaflets  (or  3  trifoliate  leaves) Biternate. 

7,  Fifteen  or  more  leaflets  (3  pinnate  leaves) Bipinnate. 

c  Thrice  compounded,  having  27  leaflets Triternate,  etc. 

d  Irregularly  much  compounded Decompound. 

*  Palmately  compounded,  consisting  of — 

10,  Three  equal  leaflets  all  alike  sessile  (Clover)... Palmi-trifoliate. 

11,  Five  or  7  leaflets,  all  equally  sessile Digitate 

CHAPTER  XXIH.    Transformations  of  the  Leaf 124 

CHAPTER  XXIV.    Metamorphosis  of  the  Flower.    (See  Chap.  XVHI)...   129 

CHAPTER  XXV  and  XXVI.    Inflorescence.— Special  Forms 134 

§  Evolution. 

—a  One  flower  only  from  a  bud Solitary. 

—b  From  axillary  buds,  the  lowest  first  opening Centripetal. 

— c  From  terminal  buds,  the  central  first Centrifugal. 

§  Special  Forms  of  Inflorescence. 
*  Centripetal,  or  Indefinite. 
a  Flowers  sessile. 

—1,  Along  a  slender  rachis Spike 

—2,  Along  a  thick  fleshy  rachis Spadix. 

— 3,  On  an  extremely  short  rachis Head 

— 4,  Spike  of  imperfect  fls.  caducous  together Ament. 

b  Flowers  borne  on  pedicels. 

6,  Along  the  sides  of  a  lengthened  rachis Kaceme. 

6,  Along  a  short  rachis,  the  lower  pedicels  lengthened. Corymb. 

7,  Clustered  on  an  extremely  short  rachis Umbel. 

c  The  pedicels  themselves  branched. 

—8,  Loosely Panicle. 

—9,  Compactly Thyrse. 


8  CONTENTS. 

*  Centrifugal,  or  Definite. 

1,  Clusters  open,  loose,  of  various  forms Cyme. 

2,  Clusters  compact,  terminal Fascicle. 

3,  Clusters  compact,  axillary  and  opposite Verticils. 

4,  Cyme  unilateral,  unrolling  as  it  develops — Scorpoid  Raceme. 

PART  SECOND.-PHYSIOLOGICAL  BOTANY 143 

CHAPTER  I.    Of  the  Vegetable  Cell 143 

CHAPTER  H.    Of  the  Vegetable  Tissues 156 

CHAPTER  m.    Tissues  and  Plant  Growth  and  Dicotyledonous  Structure.  161 

CHAPTER  IV.    Monocotyledonous  Structure 168 

CHAPTER  V.    Leaf  Structure,  Circulation  and  Movements  of  Fluids  ....  171 
CHAPTER  VT.    Fertilization ;  Polination  ;  Cross-fertilization 176 

.  *» 

PART  THIRD.— SYSTEMATIC  BOTANY 183 

CHAPTER  I.    General  Principles  of  Classification 183 

CHAPTER  II.    The  Natural  System 186 

CHAPTER  m.    Rules  for  Nomenclature 193 

CHAPTER  IV.    Botanical  Analysis 195 

INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY...  ..  199 


1TIVBBSIT7] 


INTRODUCTION 


CHAPTER   I. 

AIDS    TO    THE    STUDY   OF    BOTANY. 

1.  The   proper  season   for  the   commencement    of 
the   study  of  Botany  in   schools  is  late  in  winter,   at 
the  opening  of  the  first  Session  after  New- Year's.    The 
class  will  thus  be  prepared  beforehand,  by  a  degree  of 
acquaintance  with  first  principles,  for  the  analysis  of 
the  earliest  Spring-flowers  —  the  Blood-root,  Liverwort, 
Spring-beauty,  Sweet  Mayflower,  and  the  Violets.     We 
have  arranged  the   topics  of  the  present  treatise  with 
a  special  view  to  the   convenience   of  the  learner  in 
this  respect,    beginning   with  that  which  is  the   first 
requisite  in  analysis — the  Flower. 

2.  Specimens  of  leaves,  stems,  roots,  fruit,  flowers,  etc.,  in  unlimited  sup- 
ply are  requisite  during  the  whole   course.     In  the  absence  of  the  living,  let 
the  dried  specimens  of  the  herbarium  be  consulted.     Crayon  sketches  upon 
the  blackboard,  if  truthful,  are  always  good  for  displaying  minute  or  obscure 
forms.     In  the  city,  classes  in  Botany  may  employ,  at  small  expense,  a  col- 
lector to  supply  them  daily  with  fresh  specimens  from  the  country.     More- 
over, the  gardens  and  conservatories  will  furnish  to  such  an  abundant  supply 
of  cultivated  species  for  study  and  analysis,  with  almost  equal  advantage,— 
since  the  present  work  embraces,  together  with  the  native  flora,  all  exotics. 

3.  An  Herbarium  (Latin,  hortus  siccus,  or  h.  s.)  is  a 
collection  of  botanic  specimens,  artificially  dried,  pro- 
tected in  papers,  and  systematically  arranged,    Eerbor 


10  INTRODUCTION.  C9,  10. 

ria  are  useful  in  many  ways : — (a)  for  the  preservation 
of  specimens  of  rare,  inaccessible,  or  lost  species  ; 
(6)  for  exchanges,  enabling  one  to  possess  the  flora  of 
other  countries ;  (c)  for  refreshing  one's  memory  of 
early  scenes  and  studies ;  (d)  for  aiding  in  more  exact 
researches  at  leisure ;  (e)  for  the  comparison  of  species 
with  species,  genus  with  genus,  etc. 

4.  Apparatus. — For  collecting  botanic  specimens,  a 
strong  knife  for  digging  and  cutting  is  needed,  and  a 
close   tin  box,  fifteen  inches  in  length,  of   a  portable 
form.     Inclosed  in  such  a  box,  with  a  little  moisture, 
specimens  will  remain  fresh  a  week. 

5.  Specimens  for  the  herbarium  should  represent 
the  leaves,   flowers,  and  fruit — and,  if  herbaceous,  the 
root  also.     Much  care  is  requisite  in  so  drying  ..them 
as  to  preserve  the  natural  appearance,  form,  and  color. 
The  secret  of  this  art  consists  in  extracting  the  moist>- 
lire  from  them  before  decomposition  can  take  place. 

6.  The  drying-press,  to  be  most  efficient   and   con- 
venient,  should  consist  of  a  dozen  quires  of  unsized 
paper,   at  least   11x16   inches  folio ;    two   sheets   of 
wire-gauze   (same   size)   as  covers,   stiffened  by  folded 
edges;    and   three    or    four    leather    straps    a    yard  in 
length,  with  buckles.    When  in  use,  suspend  this  press 
in   the  wind   and   sunshine ;   or,    in   rainy  weather,   by 
the   fire.      In   such   circumstances,  specimens  dry  well 
without  once  changing.    But  if  boards  be  used  instead 
of  wire-gauze,  the  papers  must  be  changed  and  dried 
daily.      Succulent   plants  may  be  immersed  in  boiling 
water  before  pressing,  to  hasten  their  desiccation. 

7.  The  lens,  either  single,  double,  or  triple,  is  very 
serviceable    in   analysis.      In  viewing    minute   flowers, 
or  parts  of  flowers,  its  use  is  indispensable.     Together 


10,  11.]  DEPARTMENTS    OF    SCIENCE.  1 1 

with  the  lens,  a  needle  in  a  handle,  a  penknife,  and 
tweezers  are  required  for  dissection. 

8.  The    compound    microscope    is    undoubtedly    a 
higher  aid  in  scientific   investigation  than  any  other 
instrument  of  human  invention.    It  is  like  the  bestow- 
ment  of  a  new  sense,  or  the  opening  of  a  new  world. 
Through  this,  almost  solely,  all  our  knowledge  of  the 
cells,  the  tissues,  growth,  fertilization,  etc.,  is  derived. 
The  skillful  use  of  this   noble  instrument  is  itself  an 
art,  which  it  is  no  part  of  our  plan  to  explain. 

9.  On  the  preparation  of  botanical  subjects  for  examination  we  remark : 
the  field  of  view  is  small,  and  only  minute  portions  of  objects  can  be  seen  at 
once ;  the  parts  must  be  brought  under  inspection  successively. 

10.  The  tissues  of  leaves,  etc.,  are  best  seen  by  transmitted  light.     They 
are  to  be  divided  by  the  razor  or  scalpel  into  extremely  thin  parings  or  cut- 
tings.    Such  cuttings  may  be  made  by  holding  the  leaf  between  the   two 
halves  of  a  split  cork.     They  are  then  made  wet  and  viewed  upon  glass.    The 
stomata  are   best  seen  in   the  epidermis  stripped  off ;   but  in  the  Sorrel-leaf 
(Oxalis  violacea)  they  appear  beautifully  distinct  upon  the  entire  leaf. 

11.  Woody  tissues,  etc.,  may  be  viewed  either  as  opaque  or  transparent. 
Sections  and  cuttings  should  be  made  in  all  directions,  and  attached  to  the 
glass  by  water,  white  of  egg,  or  Canada  balsam.     To  obtain  the  elementary 
cells  separately  for  inspection,  the  fragment  of  wood  may  be  macerated  in  a 
few   drops   of   nitric   acid   added   to   a  grain  of   chlorate  of  potassa.     Softer 
structures  may  be  macerated  simply  in  boiling  water. 


CHAPTER    II. 

DEPARTMENTS    OF    SCIENCE. 

12.  Three  great  departments  in  nature  are  univer- 
sally  recognized:    the   mineral,  vegetable,   and   animal 
kingdoms.      The    first    constitutes  the  Inorganic;   the 
other  two,  the  Organic  World. 

13.  A   mineral  is  an  inorganic   mass   of  matter — 
that    is,   without    distinction    of    parts    or    organs.      A 


1 2  INTRODUCTION.  [11,  12. 

stone,  for  example,  may  be  broken  into  any  number 
of  fragments,  each  of  which  will  retain  all  the  essen- 
tial characteristics  of  the  original  body,  so  that  each 
fragment  will  still  be  a  stone. 

14.  A  plant   is  an  organized  body,  endowed  with 
vitality  but  not  with   sensation,   composed  of  distinct 
parts,  each  of  which   is  essential  to  the   completeness 
of  its  being.      A  Tulip   is   composed  of  organs  which 
may  be  separated  and  subdivided  indefinitely,  but  no 
one  of  the  fragments  alone  will  be  a  complete  plant. 

15.  Animals,   like  plants,   are   organized  bodies  en- 
dowed with  vitality,   and   composed   of  distinct  parts, 
no  one  of  which   is  complete  in  itself ;  but  they  are 
elevated    above    either    plants    or    minerals    by    their 
power  of  perception. 

16.  Physics   is   the   general    name   of   the    science 
which  treats  of  the  mineral  or  inorganic  world. 

17.  Zoology  relates  to  the  animal  kingdom. 

18.  Botany  is   the  science   of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom.    It  includes  the  knowledge  of  the  forms,  organs, 
structure,   growth,   and  uses  of  plants,   together  with 
their  history    and    classification.      Its    several    depart- 
ments   correspond  to    the  various    subjects    to    which 
they  relate.      Thus, 

19.  Morphology  treats  of  the  special  organs  of  plants 
as  compared  with  each  other ;    it  especially  relates  to 
the    mutual    or    typical    transformations    which    the 
organs  undergo  in  the  course  of  development. 

20.  Vegetable    Histology   treats    of    the    elementary 
tissues  — the   organic   units   or  cells  out  of  which  the 
vegetable  fabric  is  constructed. 

21.  Physiological  Botany  is  that  department  which 
relates  to  the  vital  action  of  the   several  organs  and 


12,  13.]  DEPARTMENTS    OF    SCIENCE.  1 3 

tissues,  including  both  the  vital  and  chemical  phe- 
nomena in  the  germination,  growth,  and  reproduction 
of  plants.  It  has,  therefore,  a  practical  bearing  upon 
the  labors  of  husbandry  in  the  propagation  and  cult- 
ure of  plants,  both  in  the  garden  and  in  the  field. 

22.  Systematic  Botany  arises  from  the  consideration 
of  plants  in  relation  to  each  other.    It  aims  to  arrange 
and  classify  plants  into  groups  and  families,  according 
to  their  mutual   affinities,  so  as  to  constitute  of  them 
all  one  unbroken  series  or  system. 

23.  Descriptive  Botany,  or  Phytology,  is  the   art  of 
expressing    the    distinctive   characters   of   species    and 
groups  of  plants  with  accuracy  and  precision,  in  order 
to  their  complete  recognition.      A  Flora  is  a  descrip- 
tive work  of  this  kind,  embracing  the-  plants  of  some 
particular  country  or  district. 

24.  Finally,  in  its  extended  sense,  Botany  comprehends  also  the  knowledge 
of  the  relations  of  plants  to  the  other  departments  of  nature  —  particularly  to 
mankind.     The  ultimate  aim   of   its   researches   is   the   development   of   the 
boundless  resources  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  for  our  sustenance  and  pro- 
tection as  well  as  education;  for  the  healing  of  our  diseases  and  the  allevia- 
tion of  our  wants  and  woes.     This  branch   of  botanical  science  is   called 
Applied  Botany,  including  several  departments  —  as  Medical  Botany,  or  Phar4 
macy;  Agricultural  Botany,  or  Chemistry;  Pomology,  etc. 

25.  The   name   of  a   plant   or  other  natural  object 
is  twofold, —  the  trivial  or  popular  name,  by  which  it 
is  generally    known    in    the    country ;    and  the  Latin 
name,  by  which  it  is  accurately  designated  in  science 
throughout    the   world.      For    example,   Strawberry  is 
the   popular  name,    and  Fragaria  vesca  the  Latin  or 
scientific    name,    of    the    same    plant.      In  elementary 
treatises,  like  the  present,  for  the  sake  of  being  readily 
understood,  plants  are  usually  called  by  their  popular 
names.     Yet  we  earnestly  recommend  the  learner  to 


1 4  INTRODUCTION.  [13. 

accustom  himself  early  to   the  use  of  the  more  accu- 
rate names  employed  in  science. 

26.  The  Latin  name  of  a  plant  is  always  double — 
generic  and  specific.    Thus  Fragaria  is  generic,  or  the 
name  of  the  genus  of  the  plant  —  vesca  is  specific,  or 
the  name  of  the  species. 

27.  A    Species    embraces   all    such   individuals   as 
may   have    originated  from    a    common    stock.      Such 
individuals  bear  an  essential  resemblance  to  each  other 
as  well  as  to  their  common  parent,  in  all  their  parts. 
For  example,  the  White  Clover  (Trifolium  repens)  is  a 
species  embracing  thousands  of  contemporary  individ- 
uals scattered  over  our  hills  and  plains,  all  of  common 
descent,  and  producing  other  individuals  of  their  own 
kind  from  their  seed. 

28.  To  this  law  of  resemblance   in   plants  of  one 
common  origin  there    are    some    apparent  exceptions. 
Individuals    descended    from    the    same    parent    often 
bear  flowers    differing    in    color,  or  fruit    differing    in 
flavor,  or  leaves  differing  in  form,   etc.      Such  plants 
are  called  Varieties.    They  are  rarely  permanent,  often 
exhibiting  a  tendency  to  revert  to  their  original  type. 
Varieties  occur  chiefly  in  species  maintained  by  culti- 
vation, as  the  Apple,  Potato,  Rose,  Dahlia.      They  also 
occur  more  or  less  in  native  plants  (as  Hepatica  tri- 
loba),  often    rendering    the    limits    of    the   species  ex- 
tremely doubtful.      They  are   due  to  the  different  cir- 
cumstances of  climate,  soil,  and  culture  to  which  they 
are  subjected,  and  continue  distinct  until  left  to  mul- 
tiply spontaneously  from  seed  in  their  own  proper  soil, 
or  some  other  change  of  circumstances. 

29.  A   Genus   is  an  assemblage   of  species  closely 
related  to  one  another  in  the  structure  of  their  flowers 


13,  14.]  THE    STAGES    OF    PLANT    LIFE.  15 

and  fruit,  and  having  more  points  of  resemblance  than 
of  difference  throughout.  Thus,  the  genus  Clover  (Tri- 
folium)  includes  many  species,  as  the  White  Clover 
(T.  repens),  the  Red  Clover  (T.  pratense),  the  Buffalo 
Clover  (T.  reflexum),  etc.,  agreeing  in  floral  structure 
and  general  aspect  so  obviously  that  the  most  hasty 
observer  would  notice  their  relationship.  So  in  the 
genus  Pinus,  no  one  would  hesitate  to  include  the 
Wl^ite  Pine,  the  Pitch  Pine,  the  Long-leafed  Pine 
(P.  strobus,  P.  rigida,  and  P.  palustris),  any  more  than 
we  would  fail  to  observe  their  differences. 

30.  Thus  individuals  are  grouped  into  species,  and 
species  are  associated  into  genera.  These  groups  con- 
stitute the  bases  of  all  the  systems  of  classification  in 
use,  whether  by  artificial  or  natural  methods. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE    STAGES    OF    PLANT    LIFE. 

31.  In    its    earliest  stage  of  life,  the    plant    is    an 
embryo  sleeping  in  the  seed.      It  then  consists  of  two 
parts,  the  radicle  or  rootlet,  and  the  plumule.    Both 
may  be  seen  in  the  Pea,  Bean,  or  Acorn.      Besides  the 
embryo,  the  seed  contains  also  its  food  in  some  form, 
provided  for  its  first  nourishment. 

32.  When  placed   just  beneath  the  surface   of  the 
soil,  it  absorbs  moisture,  which,  with  the  genial  warmth 
of  Spring,  awakens  the  embryo,  and  it  begins  to  feed 
and   grow.      The    radicle    protrudes    (Fig.    2,   r),   turns 
downward,  seeking  the   dark  damp  earth,  avoiding  the 
air  and  light,  and  forms  the  root  or  descending  axis. 
The  plumule,  taking  the  opposite  direction  (Fig.  3,  p), 


16 


INTEODUCTION. 


[14. 


ascends,    seeking   the    air    and    light,    and    expanding 
itself  to  their  influence.    This  constitutes  the 
stem  or  ascending  axis,  bearing   the  leaves. 
Thus  the  acorn  germinates,  and  the  Oak  en- 
ters upon  the  second  stage  of  its  existence. 

33.  At  first  the  ascending  axis  is  merely 
a  bud,  that   is,  a  growing  point  clothed  with 
and  protected  by  little  scales,  the  rudiments 
of   leaves.     As    the    growing    point 
advances  and  its  lower  scales  grad- 
ually expand  into  leaves,  new  scales 
successively    appear    above.      Thus 

the  axis  is  always  terminated  by 
bud. 

34.  The    terminal    bud   ex- 
pands    into    leaves,     and    the 
ascending  axis   (Fig.   4,  p) 
creases  in  length  and  diam- 
eter.    Besides  the  terminal 
bud,  one  is  formed  in  the 
axil  of  each  leaf.     If  none 

of  the  buds  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  de- 
velop, the  plant  at 
the  end  of  the  grow- 
ing season  will  pre- 
sent a  young  oak,  as 
Fig.  A,  but  if  one  should  grow,  the  little  tree  would 
appear  as  in  Fig.  B. 

35.  During  successive  periods  of  growth  the  lateral 
buds    develop,   forming  branches   and  branchlets,   and 
season  after  season  the   main  axis  lengthens   and  in- 
creases in  diameter,  the  branches  multiply  and  enlarge, 


m- 


Acorn  (seed  of  Quercus)  germinat- 
ing ;  1,  section  showing  the  radicle  (?) 
which  is  to  become  the  root,  and  the 
two  cotyledons  (c)  which  are  to  nourish 
it ;  2,  the  radicle  r,  descending ;  3  and  4,  the  radicle,  r,  de- 
scending, and  the  plumule  (p)  ascending. 


THE    STAGES    OF    PLANT    LIFE. 


17 


until  the  full-grown  oak  in  all  its  beauty  and  majesty 
stands  before  us  (Fig.  0). 

The  student  is  struck  with  wonder  and  admiration 
as  he  watches  these  stages  of  growth ;  how  is  it,  he 
asks,  that  the  tiny  plant  which  was  nestling  in  the 
acorn  has  been  changed  into  this  gigantic  oak  ?  When 
he  comes  to  study  the  cells  and  tissues  of  which  this 


4,  A  young  oak  at  the  end  of  the  first  season  of  growth,  the  markings  on  the  stem,  d,  d,  are  the  scars 
]eft  by  the  fallen  leaves  ;  at  each  scar  there  is  an  undeveloped  bud  ;  some  of  these  may  grow  during  the 
next  season,  and  develop  into  branches.  B,  A  young  oak  at  the  end  of  the  first  season,  one  of  the  lateral 
buds  having  grown  and  produced  a  branch. 

great  tree  is  made  up,  his  amazement  will  increase  as 
he  realizes  the  paucity  of  material  and  the  magnitude 
of  the  structure ;  the  insignificance  of  the  beginning 
and  the  grandeur  of  the  end.  "The  economy  of  causes 
and  the  prodigality  of  effects ;  the  simplicity  of  laws 
and  the  complexity  of  results." 

36.  The  tree  is  now  complete,  possessing  the  organs 
necessary  to  discharge  the  functions  of  plant  growth. 
It  has  root,  rootlets,  stem,  branches,  branchlets,  and 


18 


INTRODUCTION. 


leaves.  The  root  fastens  it  firmly  in  the  ground  ; 
the  rootlets  take  up  liquids  from  the  soil;  the  stem, 
branches,  and  branchlets  are  furnished  with  vessels 
and  passages  through  which  the  fluids  find  their  way 
to  the  leaves,  where,  under  the  influence  of  air  and 


(7,  Quercus  alba. 

sunlight,   they    are    changed    and     fitted    for    plant 
food. 

37.  The  next  stage  in  the  plant's  life  is  the  produc- 
tion of  the  flower.  To  accomplish  this,  a  change  takes 
place  in  the  mode  of  development.  Some  of  the  buds, 
instead  of  extending  the  axes  of  the  branchlets  or 
forming  new  branchlets,  expand  their  scales,  producing 


THE    STAGES    OF    PLANT    LIFE. 


19 


crowded  whorls,  each  succeeding  whorl  differing  from 
the  last ;  some  of  the  parts  possessing  great  delicacy 


H,  young  branchlet  of  Q.  alba,  with  aments,  etc.  D,  a  staminate  (  $)  flower  ;  E,  the  satnw,  F,  a 
pistillate  ( $ )  flower  with  five  stigmas  ;  G,  vertical  section  of  the  same  ;  J,  branchlet  with  full-grown 
leaves  and  mature  fruit ;  /,  section  of  the  acorn  showing  the  two  thick  cotyledons  and  embryo  at  top. 

of    organization,    and,    frequently,   marked    beauty    of 
color.      (See  Figures  D,  E,  F,  G,  H,  1,  J.) 


20  INTRODUCTION.  [16. 

38.  The  next  stage  is   the  production  of  fruit,  in 
which  flowering  is  the  first  step ;    the  showy  parts  of 
the  flower  soon  wither  and  fall  away ;  the   pistil,  hav- 
ing been  fertilized,  is  left,  and  continues  to  grow  and 
finally  matures  into  the  ripe  Fruit  (Figs.  /,  J). 

We  found  the  plant  slumbering  in  the  Seed ;  we 
have  followed  and  watched  its  behavior  through  all 
the  stages  of  its  Life. 

39.  We  have    seen  the  seed  placed  in  the   damp 
soil,  where  it  absorbed  moisture,  enlarged,  ruptured  its 
shell,  sent  forth  a  sprout,  which  began  to  increase  in 
two  directions,  one  part  enlarged  downwards  into  the 
earth  and  formed  a  root;  the  other  part  grew  upwards 
and  became    a   stem.     The    stem    clothed    itself   with 
leaves,  sent    forth  branches,  and    adorned  itself    with 
flowers.     These  several  achievements  were  succeeded 
by  the  crowning  act  of  vegetable  life,  the  production  of 
mature  seed  in  which  a  new  Plant  reposes,  in  embryo. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

TERM    OR    PERIOD    OF    PLANT    LIFE. 

40.  Flowering  and  fruit-bearing  is  an  exhausting 
process.  If  it  occur  within  the  first  or  second  year  of 
the  life  of  the  plant,  it  generally  proves  fatal.  In  all 
other  cases,  it  is  either  immediately  preceded  or  fol- 
lowed by  a  state  of  repose.  Now,  if  flowering  be  pre- 
vented by  nipping  the  buds,  the  tender  annual  may 
become  perennial,  as  in  the  florist's  Tree-mignonette. 
We  distinguish  plants,  as  to  their  term  of  life,  into 
the  annual  (CD),  the  biennial  (®),  and  the  perennial 
(  2f ).  An  annual  ( (D )  herb  is  a  plant  whose  en- 


16,  17.]  TEEM    OK    PEKIOD    OF    PLANT    LIFE.  2 1 

tire  life  is  limited  to  a  single  season.  It  germinates 
from  the  seed  in  Spring,  attains  its  growth,  blossoms, 
bears  fruit,  and  dies  in  Autumn ;  as  the  Flax,  Corn, 
Morning-glory. 

41.  A  biennial  herb  (©)  is  a  plant  which  germi- 
nates   and    vegetates,    bearing    leaves    only    the    first 
season,  blossoms,  bears  fruit,  and  dies  the  second ;    as 
the   Beet  and   Turnip.     Wheat,   Rye,   etc.,   are   annual 
plants ;   but  when  sown  in  Autumn,  the  sudden  frost 
prevents  flowering,  and  they  become  biennials. 

42.  Monocarpic  herbs.  —  The  Century-plant  (Agave),  the  Talipot-palm,  etc.,  are 
so  called.     They  vegetate,  bearing  leaves  only,  for  many  years,  accumulating 
materials  and  strength  for  one  mighty  effort   in  fructification,  which  being 
accomplished,  they  die.     In  some  species  the  term  of  life  depends  on  climate 
alone.     The  Castor-bean  (Ridnus)  is  an  annual  herb  in  the  Northern  States, 
a  shrub  in  the  Southern,  and  a  tree  of  large  size  in  its  native  India.     So 
Petunia,  annual  in  our  gardens,  is  perennial  at  home  (in  Brazil). 

43.  Perennial  plants  are  such  as  have  an  indefinite 
duration  of  life,  usually  of  many  years.    They  may  be 
either  herbaceous  or  woody.    Herbaceous  perennials,  or 
perennial  herbs  (2£),  are  plants  whose  parts  are  annual 
above   ground   and   perennial   below.      In  other  words, 
their  roots   or  subterranean  stems  live   from  year  to 
year,  sending  up  annually,  in  Spring,  flowering  shoots 
which  perish  after  they  have  ripened    their  fruit   in 
Autumn ;  as  the  Lily,  Dandelion,  Hop. 

44.  Woody  perennials  usually  vegetate  several  years, 
and  attain  well-nigh  their  ordinary  stature  before  flow- 
ering ;  thenceforward  they  fructify  annually,  resting  or 
sleeping    in    winter.      They    are    known   as   trees    (b), 
shrubs  (b),  bushes,  and  undershrubs  (b) — distinctions 
founded  on  size  alone. 

45.  A   shrub    (b),   is   a  diminutive  tree,   limited  to 
eighteen  or  twenty  feet  in  stature,  and  generally  divid- 


22  INTRODUCTION.  [17,  18. 

ing  into  branches  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground 
(Alder,  Quince).  If  the  woody  plant  be  limited  to  a 
still  lower  growth,  say  about  the  human  stature,  it  is 
called  a  bush  (Snowball,  Andromeda).  If  still  smaller, 
it  is  an  undershrub  (b)  (Whortleberry). 

46.  A  tree  (5)   is  understood  to  attain  to   a  height 
many  times  greater  than  the  human  stature,  with  a 
permanent  woody  stem,  whose  lower  part,  the  trunk, 
is  unbranched. 

47.  As  to  age,  some  trees  live  only  a  few  years,  rapidly  attaining  their 
growth  and  rapidly  decaying,  as  the  Peach ;  others  have  a  longevity  exceed- 
ing the  age  of  man ;  and  some  species  outlive  many  generations.    Age  may  be 
estimated  by  the  number  of  wood-circles  or  rings  seen  in  a  cross-section  of  the 
trunk  (§  408),  each  ring  being  (very  generally)  an  annual  growth.     Instances 
of  great  longevity  are  on  record.     See  Class  Book  of  Botany,  §§  99,  100.     The 
monarch  tree  of  the  world  is  the  Calif ornian  Cedar  —  Sequoia  gigant^a.     One 
which  had  fallen  measured  26  feet  in   diameter,  and  363  in  length!     The 
wood-circles   of  this   specimen  are  unusually  thick,  yet   count  up  to  1,330. 
Among  those  yet  standing,  are  many  of  even  greater  dimensions,  as  beautiful 
in  form  as  they  are  sublime  in  height  —  the  growth,  probably,  of  more  than 
2,000  years.     One  of  the  Sequoias  is  estimated  at  1,500  years ;   another  of 
these  monsters,  felled  in  1875,  had  2,130  rings ;    still   another  was  estimated 
by  Dr.  Gray  to  be  3,200  years  old.     One  of  these  monster  tree's  has  recently 
been  discovered,  in  Tulare  County,  California,  by  an  engineer  of  the  Comstock 
mines,  that  measures  more  than  56  feet  in  diameter  at  a  point  seven  feet 
from  the  ground. 

48.  Trees  are  again  distinguished  as  deciduous   (b) 
and  evergreen  (b)  — the  former  losing  their  foliage  in 
Autumn,    and    remaining    naked    until    the    following 
Spring;    the  latter   retaining  their  leaves  and  verdure 
throughout   all  seasons.      The  Fir  tribe  (Coniferse)  in- 
cludes  nearly  all  the   evergreens  of  the  North ;    those 
of  the   South   are   far   more  numerous  in  kind  —  e.  g., 
the  Magnolias,  the  Live-oaks,  Holly,  Cherry,  Palmetto, 
etc. 


PART   FIRST. 
STRUCTURAL   BOTANY;    OR,   ORGANOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE    FLOWER. 

49.  The  flower  is  the  immediate  agent  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  seed  with  its  embryo,  and  to  this  end 
its  whole  structure  is  designed.    Moreover,  its  superior 
beauty    attracts    earliest    attention,    and    an    intimate 
knowledge  of  its  organs  is  the  first  requisite  in  analy- 
sis and  classification. 

50.  The  flower  may  consist  of  the  following  mem- 
bers—  the  floral  envelopes  and  the  essential  floral  or- 
gans.     The   floral   envelopes  consist   of   one    or    more 
circles  or  whorls   of   leaves   surrounding  the  essential 
organs.    The  outer  of  these  whorls  is  called  the  calyx ; 
and  the  other,  if  there  be  any,  the  corolla.    The  calyx 
may,    therefore,    exist    without    the    corolla ;    but    the 
corolla  can  not  exist  without  the  calyx. 

51.  Calyx  is  a  Greek  word  signifying  a  cup.      It  is 
applied  to  the  external  envelope  of  the  flower,  consist- 
ing of  a  whorl   of  leaves  with   their  edges  distinct  or 
united,  usually  green,  but    sometimes    highly  colored. 
The  leaves  or  pieces  composing  the  calyx  are   called 
sepals. 


24  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [19,  20. 

52.  Corolla    is    a    Latin    word    signifying    a    little 
crown,  applied   to   the  interior  envelope  of  the  flower. 
It  consists  of  one  or  more  circles  of  leaves,  either  dis- 
tinct or  united  by  their  edges,  usually  of  some  other 
color  than  green,  and  of  a  more  delicate  texture  than 
the  calyx.     Its  leaves  are  called  petals. 

53.  Perianth    (nept,  around,  av6o^J  flower)  is  a  word 
in  common  use  to  designate  the  floral  envelopes  as  a 
whole,  without  distinction  of  calyx  and  corolla.      It  is 
used  in  description,  especially  when  these  two  envel- 
opes are  so  similar  as  not  to  be  readily  distinguished, 
as   in   the   Tulip,    Lily,    and   the   Endogens   generally; 
also  where  only  one  envelope  exists,  as  in  Phytolacca, 
Elm,  etc. 

54.  The  essential  floral  organs  stand  within  the  cir- 
cles of  the  perianth,   and   are   so  called  because  they 
are  the  immediate  instruments  in  perfecting  the  seed, 
and    thus    accomplishing    the    final    purposes    of    the 
flower.      These  organs  are  of  two  kinds,  perfectly  dis- 
tinct in  position  and  office — viz.,  the  stamens  and  the 
pistils. 

55.  The  stamens  are  those  thread-like  organs  situ- 
ated just  within  the  perianth   and  around  the  pistils. 
Their  number  varies  from  one  to  a  hundred  or  more ; 
but  the  most  common    number  is  five.      Collectively 
they  are  called  the  androeceum. 

56.  The   pistils    (called   also    carpels)    occupy   the 
center  of  the  flower  at  the  absolute  terminus  of  the 
flowering  axis.      They  are  sometimes  numerous,  often 
apparently  but  one,  always   destined  to  bear  the  seed. 
Collectively  they  are   called  the  gynceceum. 

57.  The    torus    or   receptacle   is  the    axis   of   the 
flower,  situated  at  the  summit  of  the  flower-stalk.     It 


20,  21.] 


PLAN    OF    THE    FLOWER. 


25 


commonly  appears  a  flattened  or  somewhat  convex 
disk,  whose  center  corresponds  to  the  apex  of  the  axis. 
On  this  disk,  as  on  a  platform,  stand  the  floral  organs 


5,  Flower  of  the  Strawberry.    6,  Flower  of  the  Pink.    7,  Flower  of  the  Lily  (Lilium  superbum).    The 
pupil  will  point  out  the  parts. 

above  described,  in  four  concentric  circles.  The  gynae- 
ceum  (pistils)  occupies  the  center ;  the  andrceceum 
encircles  it ;  the  corolla  is  next  without ;  and  the 
calyx  embraces  the  whole. 


CHAPTER   II. 

PLAN    OF    THE    FLOWER. 

58.  vSuch,  'in  general,  is  the  organization  of  the 
flower.  It  is  simple  enough  in  theory ;  and  in  most 
of  the  plants  with  which  he  meets,  the  student  will 
easily  recognize  these  several  organs  by  name.  But, 
in  truth,  flowers  vary  in  form  and  fashion  to  a  degree 
almost  infinite.  Each  organ  is  subject  to  transforma- 
tions, disguises,  and  even  to  entire  extinction ;  so  that 
the  real  nature  of  the  flower  may  become  an  intricate 
and  perplexing  study. 


2  6  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [21,  22. 

59.  As  we  shall  soon  see,   in  all   these  variations 
there   is  method.      They  are  never  capricious  or  acci- 
dental, however  much  they  may  appear  so.      Unity  in 
diversity  is  characteristic  of  Nature   in  all  her  depart- 
ments, and  eminently  so  in  the  flowers ;    and  the  first 
step   in  the   successful  study  of   them  is  to   discover 
that  unity — that  simple  idea  of  the  floral  structure  in 
which    all    its    diversities    harmonize.      Before   flowers 
were  created,  that  idea  or  type  was  conceived;  and  to 
possess  it  ourselves  is  a  near  approach  to  communion 
with  the  Infinite  Author  of  Nature. 

60.  The   typical   flower,   one  that   exemplifies   the 
full  idea  of  the  floral  structure,  consists  of  four  differ- 
ent circles  of  organs,  as  before  described,  placed  circle 
within  circle  on  the  torus,  and  all  having  a  common 
center.      Such  a   flower   must  possess  these  five  attri- 
butes—  viz. :  It  must  be 

a,  Complete ;  having  the  four  kinds  or  sets  of 
organs  arranged  in  as  many  concentric  circles.  That 
it  is  perfect,  having  both  kinds  of  the  essential  organs, 
is  necessarily  included  under  its  completeness. 

5,  Regular ;  having  the  organs  of  the  same  name 
all  similar  and  alike  ;  that  is,  all  the  petals  of  one 
pattern,  all  the  stamens  alike  in  form,  size,  position, 
etc. 

c,  Symmetrical ;  having  the  same  number  of  organs 
in  each  set  or  circle. 

d,  Alternating    in    respect    to    the    position    of    the 
organs.      This  implies  that  the  several  organs  of  each 
set    stand   not  opposite   to,  but   alternating   with    the 
organs  of  the  adjacent  set;  —  the  petals  alternate  with 
the  sepals  and   stamens ;    the   stamens  alternate  with 
the  petals  and  pistils. 


22,  23.] 


PLAN    OF    THE    FLOWEK. 


27 


e,  That  the  organs  be  distinct,  all  disconnected  and 
free  from  each  other. 

61.  This  is  the  TYPE.      But  it  is  seldom  fully  real- 
ized in  the  flowers  as  they  actually  grow,  although  the 
tendency  toward  it  is   universal.     Deviations  occur  in 
every  imaginable  mode   and  degree,  causing  that  end- 
less variety  in  the  floral  world  which  we   never  cease 
to  admire.      For  example,  in  our  pattern  flowers  (5,  6, 
7),  the  pistils  seem  too  few  in  the  Pink  and  Lily,  and 
the  stamens  too  many  in  all  of  them. 

62.  The   flower  of  the  Max  (10)  combines  very  nearly  all  the  conditions 
above  specified.     It  is  complete,  regular,  symmetrical.     Its  organs  are  alter- 
nate and  all  separate;  and  (disregarding  the  slight  cohesion  of  the  pistils  at 
their  base)   this  flower  well   realizes  our  type.     Admitting    two    whorls    of 
stamens  instead  of  one,  we  have  a  good  example  of  our  type  in  Stone-crop 
(Sedum  ternatum),   a  little  fleshy  herb  of  our  woods.     Its  flowers  are  both 
4-parted  and  5-parted  in  the  same  plant.     See  also  the  12-parted  flowers  of 
the  common  Houseleek. 


8,  Flower  of  Crassula  lactea,  regular,  symmetrical,  organs  distinct.    9,  Diagram  showing  its  plan. 
10,  Flower  of  the  Scarlet  Flax.    11,  Diagram  of  its  plan. 

63.  The  flowers  of  Crassula  (8),  an  African  genus 
sometimes  cultivated,  afford  unexceptionable  examples, 
the  sepals,  petals,  stamens,  and  pistils  each  being  five 
in  number,  regularly  alternating  and  perfectly  separate. 


28  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [23. 


CHAPTER   III. 

STUDY    OF    ANOMALOUS    FLOWERS. 

64.  The    true    method    of   studying  the    flower    is 

by  comparing  it  with  this  type.  So  shall  we  be 
able,  and  ever  delighted,  to  learn  the  nature  of  each 
organ  in  all  its  disguises  of  form,  and  to  discern  the 
features  of  the  general  plan  even  under  its  widest 
deviations.  The  more  important  of  them  are  included 
under  the  following  heads,  which  will  be  considered  in 
order :  1 ,  Variations  of  the  radical  number  of  the 
flower;  2,  Deficiencies;  3,  Redundancies;  4,  Union  of 
parts ;  5,  Irregularities  of  development. 

65.  The  radical  number  of  the  flower  is  that  which 
enumerates    the   parts    composing    each   whorl.      Here 
nature  seems  most  inclined  to  the  number  five,  as  in 
Grassula,  Flax,  Rose,  and  Strawberry.      It  varies,  how- 
ever, from  one  to  twelve,  and  is  expressed  by  word  or 
sign  as  follows*:   di-merous,  or  2 -parted  (/y/),  tri-merous 


13 

12,  Flower  of  Hippuris,  one-parted.      13,  Flower  of  Circaea  Lutetiana,  fr     14,  Flower  of  Xyris, 


or  3-parted  (^/),  penta-merous  or  5-parted  (^/),  etc. 
The  flowers  of  Hippuris  (12)  are  1-parted,  having  but 
one  stamen  and  one  pistil.  Those  of  Circaea  (13)  are 
2 -parted,  having  2  sepals,  2  petals,  2  stamens,  etc. 


23,  24.]  STUDY    OF    ANOMALOUS    FLOWEKS.  29 

Those  of  Xyris  (14)  are  ^/,  having  all  the  parts  in  3s. 
Xyris  is  one  of  the  Endogens.  Trimerous  flowers  are 
characteristic  of  this  great  group  of  Plants,  while  pen- 
tamerous  flowers  commonly  distinguish  the  Exogens. 

66.  Deficiencies  often  occur,  rendering  the  flower 
incomplete.  Such  flowers  lack  some  one  or  more  en- 
tire sets  of  organs.  When  only  one  of  the  floral 
envelopes,  the  calyx,  exists,  the  flower  is  said  to  be 
apetalous  or  monochlamydeous  (#Aa^c,  a  cloak),  as  in 
Elm,  Phytolacca.  These  terms  are  also  loosely  applied 
to  such  plants  as  Rhubarb,  Anemone,  Liverwort,  where 
the  pieces  of  the  perianth  are  all  similar,  although  in 
two  or  three  whorls.  When  the  perianth  is  wholly 
wanting,  the  flower  is  said  to  be  achlamydeous,  or 
naked,  as  in  Lizard-tail  (15). 


17 


15,  Flower  of  Saururus  (Lizard-tail)— achlamydeous.     16,  Flower  of  Fraxinus  (Ash).    17,  Flower 
of  Salix  (Willow),  staminate— 18,  pistillate. 

67.  Imperfect  flowers  are  also  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. They  are  deficient  in  respect  to  the  essential 
organs.  A  sterile  or  staminate  flower  (denoted  thus  $  ) 
has  stamens  withous  pistils.  A  fertile  or  pistillate 
flower  ( ? )  has  pistils  without  stamens.  Such  flowers 
being  counterparts  of  each  other,  and  both  necessary 
to  the  perfection  of  the  seed,  mast  exist  either  to- 
gether upon  the  same  plant  or  upon  separate  plants 
of  the  same  species.  In  the  former  case,  the  species 


30  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [24,  25. 

is  monoecious  ( 8 ),  as  in  Oak  ;   in  the  latter  case,  dioe- 
cious ($  ? ),  as  in  Willow.     The  term  diclinous,  denot- 


21  ^WL 

^i\ 

19,  Pistillate  flower  of  Balm-of-Gilead.    20,  Staminate.    21,  Begonia— a,  staminate ;  b,  pistillate. 

ing  either  8  or  $  ?  without  distinction,  is  in  common 
use. 

68.  A  neutral  flower  is  a  perianth   or  calyx  only, 
having  neither  stamens  nor  pistils.     Such  are  the  ray- 
flowers  of  many  of  the  Composite,  and  of  the  cymes 
of  Hydrangea,    High-cranberry,   etc.,  which  in  cultiva- 
tion may  all  become  neutral,  as  in  the  Snow-ball. 

69.  Unsymmetrical   flowers.  —  The  term    symmetry, 
as  used  in  Botany,  refers  to  number  only.     A  flower 
becomes  unsymmetrical  by  the  partial  development  of 
any    set    or    circle    in    respect    to    the    number   of    its 
organs.      The    Mustard    family,    called    the    Crucifers, 
afford  good  examples. 

70.  The  flowers  of  Mustard,  Cress,  etc.,  are  understood  to  be  4-merous  (  0. 
The  sepals  are  four,  petals  four,  but  the  stamens  are  six  and  the  styles  but 
two.     The  stamens  are  arranged  in  two  circles,  having  two  of  those  in  the 
outer  circle  suppressed  or  reduced  to  mere  glands.     Two  of  the  carpels  are 
also  suppressed  (429).     In  the  Mint  family  and  the  Figworts  one  or  three  of 
the  stamens  are  generally  abortive.     Here,  while  the  flowers  are    ^,  the  sta- 
mens are  four  in  some  species  and  only  two  in  others.     The  missing  stamens, 
however,  often  appear  in  the  guise  of  slender  processes  —  the  rudiments  of 
stamens — proving  in  an  interesting  manner  the  natural  tendency  to   sym- 
metry. 

71.  In  the  ^flowers  of  Poppy,  the  sepals  are  but  two;  in  fy  Spring-beauty 
they  are  but  two;  in  both  cases  too  few  for  symmetry.     In  Larkspur  (26)  the 
^  flowers  have  but  four  petals ;    and  in  Monk's-hood  (29),  also   fa  the  petals 


,  26.] 


STUDY    OF    ANOMALOUS    FLOWERS. 


31 


are  apparently  but  two,  strangely  deformed  bodies.  A  careful  inspection, 
however,  generally  reveals  the  other  three,  very  minute,  in  their  proper 
places,  as  displayed  in  the  cut. 

72.  "Organs  opposite"  is   a  condition  much  less  fre- 
quent than  "organs  alternate,"  but  is  highly  interest- 
ing, as  being  sometimes   characteristic  of  whole  fami- 
lies.     Thus    in    the  Primrose,   Thrift,    and    Buckthorn 
families,    the    stamens    always   stand   opposite,  to    the 
petals ! 

73.  How    happens    this?      Among    the    Prim  worts 
this  question  is  solved  in  the  flowers  of  Lysimachia 


22 


I  Diag  ams.—22,  Flower  of  Samolus,  showing  the  rudimentary  stamens  alternating  with  the  peifect. 
23,  Flower  of  a  Labiate  plant,  showing  the  place  of  the  deficient  stamen.  24,  Flower  of  Asarum— three 
sepals,  twelve  stamens,  etc.  25,  Flower  of  Saxifrage — two  pistils,  ten  stamens,  etc. 

and  Samolus,  where  we  find  a  circle  of  five  teeth 
(abortive  filaments)  between  the  petals  and  stamens, 
alternating  with  both  sets,  thus  restoring  the  lost  sym- 
metry. Hence  we  infer  that  in  such  cases  generally 
a  circle  of  alternating  organs  has  been  either  partially 
or  wholly  suppressed.  In  the  Buckthorn,  however,  a 
different  explanation  has  been  given. 

74.  Redundancy.  —  The  multiplication  of  organs  is 
exceedingly  common,  and  usually  according  to  a  defi- 
nite plan.  The  increase  takes  place,  as  a  rule,  by  cir- 
cles, and  consequently  by  multiples.  That  is,  e.g.,  the 
stamens  of  a  ty  flower,  if  increased,  will  be  so  by  3s ; 
of  a  fy  flower  by  5s,  etc.,  —  sometimes  to  the  extent  of 
twenty  such  circles. 


32 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[26,  27. 


75.  In  the  Crowfoot,  Rose,  and  other  families  with  numerous  stamens,  the 
arrangement  is  in  crowded  spirals,  like  the  phyllotaxis  of  the  plants  with  the 
internodes  undeveloped.     The  carpels  of  the  Crowfoot  are  also  generally  mul- 
tiplied, yet  often,  on  the  contrary,  diminished,  as  in  the  Paeony.    In  Rosacese, 
also,  the  stamens  are  generally  multiplied,  while  the  carpels  exist  in  all  con- 
ditions as  to  number.     Thus  in  Strawberry  they  are  multiplied,  in  the  Apple 
they  are  regularly  five,  in  Agrimony  reduced  to  two,  and  in  the  Cherry  to 
one.     In  Magnolia  the    ft  flowers  have  three  sepals  in  one  circle,  six  or  nine 
petals  in  two  or  three  circles,  numerous  stamens  and  carpels  in  many  circles 
of  each.      In  the  ty  flowers  or  Blood-root  there  are  two  sepals,   eight  petals, 
twenty-four  stamens,  and  two  carpels. 

76.  Chbrisis.—In.  other  cases,  the  organs  seem  to  be  increased  in  number 
by  clusters,  rather  than  by  circles,  as  when  in  the  same  circle  several  stamens 
stand  in  the  place  of  one  —  e.g.,  in  Squirrel-corn,  St.  Johnswort,  Linden.    Such 
cases  afford  wide  scope  for  conjecture.     Perhaps  each  cluster  originates  by 
division,  as  the  compound  from  the  simple  leaf ;  or  as  a  tuft  of  axillary  leaves  ; 
or  thirdly,  by  a  partial  union  of  organs. 


CHAPTER   IY. 

ANOMALOUS    FLOWERS  —  CONTINUED. 

77.  Appendicular  organs  consist  of  spurs,  scales, 
crown,  glands,  etc.,  and  often  afford  excellent  dis- 
tinctive marks.  The  old  term  nectary  was  indiscrim- 


26 


26,  Flower  of  Delphinium  Consolida  (common  Larkspur),  displaying  K,  s,  ,«,  s,  s,  the  five  sepals — a,  (he 
upper  one  spur;  c,  the  corolla  of  four  petals,  here  united  into  one  and  produce*  into  a  spur.  27,  Flower 
of  Impatiens  fulva  (Touch-me-not).  28,  Displaying  s,  s,  s,  y,  the  four  sepals,  y  being  saccate  and  spurred  ; 
p,  p,  the  two  petals,  both  double,  preserving  the  symmetry. 


inately  applied    to    all 
them  produced  honey. 


such    organs,   because   some   of 


26-28.]  STUDY    OF    ANOMALOUS    FLOWERS.  33 

78.  Spurs  are  singular  processes  of  the  flower,  tu- 
bular and  projecting  from  behind  it.      In    Columbine 
each  petal  is  thus  spurred  ;  —  in  Violet,  one  petal  only ; 
in  Larkspur,  two  petals  and  a  sepal,  the   spur   of  the 
latter  inclosing  that  of  the  former.      The  curved  spur 
of  the  Jewel-weed  belongs  to  a  sepal  (27,  28). 

79.  Scales  are   attached  to   the   inner  side   of   the 
corolla,    usually   upon   the   claw   of   the    petals,    as    in 
Buttercups,   or  within   the  throat  of  the   corolla  tube, 
as  in   the    Borrageworts.      Similar    appendages,    when 
enlarged     and     conspicuous,     constitute     a    crown    in 
Catchfly,   Corn-cockle,  Narcissus.      See  also  the  stami- 
nal  crown  of  the  Silk-grass  (Asclepias). 

80.  Glandular  bodies  are  often  found  upon  the  re- 
ceptacle  in   the   places  of  missing  stamens  or  carpels, 
or  as   abortive   organs   of   some  kind.      Examples   are 
seen  in  the  Crucifers  and  Grape.      In  Grass-Parnassus 
they  are  stalked  and  resemble  stamens. 

81.  The   union   of  organs  in  some  way  occurs  in 
almost    every    flower ;    and,    more    perhaps    than    any 
other   cause,    tends    to    disguise    its    plan    and    origin. 
The   separate   pieces   which   stood  each   as  the  repre- 
sentative   of    a    leaf,    now,    by  a    gradual  fusion,  lose 
themselves  in  the  common  mass.    Nevertheless,  marks 
of  this  process  are  always  discernible,  either  in  parts 
yet  remaining  free,  or  in  the  seams  where  the  edges 
were  conjoined.    The  floral  organs  may  unite  by  cohe- 
sion or  adhesion. 

82.  Cohesion,  when  the  parts  of  the  same  whorl  are 
joined  together ;  as  the  sepals  of  the  Pink,  the  petals  of 
Morning-glory,  the  stamens  of  Mallows,  the  carpels  of 
Poppy.      Adhesion,  when  the  parts  of  different  whorls 
are   conjoined ;    as  the    stamens   with    the    corolla    in 


34 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[27,  28. 


Phlox,  with  the  pistils  in  Milkweed,  Lady's-slipper ; 
or  calyx  with  ovary,  in  Apple  or  Wintergreen  (G-aul- 
theria).  The  adjective  free  is  used  in  a  sense  opposite 
to  adhesion,  implying  that  the  organ  is  inserted  on  (or 
grows  out  of)  the  receptacle,  and  otherwise  separated 
from  any  other  kind  of  organ.  The  adjective  distinct 
is  opposed  to  cohesion,  implying  that  like  organs  are 
separate  from  each  other.  More  of  this  in  another 
chapter. 


29,  Flower  of  Aconitum  Napellus  displayed;  *,  «,  s,  s,  »,  the  five  sepals,  the  upper  one  hooded;  p,  p,  p, 
the  five  petals,  of  which  the  two  upper  are  nectaries  covered  by  the  hood,  and  the  three  lower  very  minute. 
30,  Flower  of  Catalpa,  2-lipped,  5-lobed.  31,  Corolla  laid  open,  showing  the  two  perfect  stamens  and  the 
three  rudimentary. 

83.  Irregular  development.  —  Our  typical  flower  is 
regular;  and  observation  proves  that  all  flowers  are 
actually  alike  regular  in  the  early  bud.  Those  in- 
equalities or  "  one-sided  "  forms,  therefore,  which  char- 
acterize certain  flowers,  are  occasioned  by  subsequent 
irregular  growth  from  a  regular  type.  The  irregu- 
larity of  flowers  occurs  in  a  thousand  ways  and 
modes  ;  —  in  the  unequal  size  of  like  organs ;  in  their 
dissimilar  forms  and  positions ;  in  their  unequal  cohe- 
sions, and  in  their  partial  suppressions.  So  in  the 
Violet  (50),  Monk's-hood  (29),  Catalpa  (30),  the  Labi- 
ates (69),  the  Pea  tribe  (59),  etc. 


28,  29.$ 


STUDY    OF    ANOMALOUS    FLOWERS. 


85 


84.  The  torus,  or  receptacle,  is  sometimes  strangely 
modified.  In  the  little  Myosurus  (32),  in  some  But- 
tercups, and  in  the  Tulip-tree  we  find  a  lengthened  or 
spindle-shaped  torus  —  lengthened  according  to  the 


32,  Flower  (magnified)  of  Myosurus  ;  a  vertical  section  showing  its  elongated  torus,  etc.  33,  The 
same,  natural  size.  34,  Flower  of  Isopyrum  bitevnatum ;  vertical  section,  showing  the  convex  or  globular 
torus,  etc.  35,  Flower  of  Rose,  showing  its  excavated  torus. 

nature  of  a  branch  (§  35),  and  all  covered  with  the 
multiplied  pistils.  On  the  contrary,  we  have  in  the 
Rose  (35)  and  Lady's-mantle  (38),  an  excavated  torus, 
within  which  the  carpels  are  held,  while  the  other 
organs  are  borne  upon  its  elevated  rim. 


36,  Paeonia  Moutan,  showing  its  very  large  disk  (d)  sheathing  the  ovaries  (p).  37,  Pistil  of  the  Lemon, 
with  its  base  surrounded  by  the  disk,  d.  S8,  Section  of  flower  of  Alchemilla,  showing  its  single  simple 
pistil,  large  disk,  and  excavated  torus. 

85.  The  disk  is  a  portion  of  the  receptacle  raised 
into  a  rim  somewhere  in  the  midst  of  the  whorls.  It 
is  found  between  the  ovary  and  stamens  in  Paeony 


S6  STRUCTURAL  BOTANY.  [29-31. 

and  Buckthorn.      It  bears  the  stamens  in  Maple  and 
Mignonette,  and  crowns  the  ovary  in  the  Umbelliferse. 

86.  Combined  deviations  are  quite  frequent,  and  sometimes  obscure  the 
typical  character  of  the  flower  to  such  a  degree  as  to  require  close  observa- 
tion in  tracing  it  out.  The  study  of  such  cases  is  full  of  both  amusement 
and  improvement.  Eor  example,  the  ty  Poppy  has  suppression  in  the  calyx, 
multiplication  in  the  stamens  and  carpels,  and  in  the  latter  cohesion  also. 
The  fy  Sage  has  cohesion  and  irregularity  in  the  calyx,  every  kind  of  irregu- 
larity in  the  corolla,  suppression  and  irregularity  in  the  stamens,  suppression 
and  cohesion  in  the  pistils.  The  ty  Cypripedium  is  perfectly  symmetrical,  yet 
has  irregular  cohesion  in  the  calyx,  great  inequality  in  the  petals,  cohesion, 
adhesion,  and  metamorphosis  in  the  stamens,  and  cohesion  in  the  carpels. 

(In  this  way  let  the  pupil  analyze  the  deviations  in  the  flower  of  Q-era- 
nium,  Hollyhock,  Moth-mullein,  Larkspur,  Sweetbrier,  Touch-me-not,  Petunia, 
Snapdragon,  Violet,  Polygala,  Squirrel-corn,  Orchis,  Henbit,  Monk's-hood, 
Calceolaria,  etc.) 


CHAPTER   V. 

XTHE  FLORAL  ENVELOPES,  OR  PERIANTH. 
In  our  idea  of  the  typical  flower,  the  perianth 
consists  of  two  whorls  of  expanded  floral  leaves  encir- 
cling and  protecting  the  more  delicate  essential  organs 
in  their  midst.  As  a  rule,  the  outer  circle,  calyx,  is 
green  and  far  less  conspicuous  than  the  inner  circle 
of  highly  colored  leaves  — the  corolla.  But  there  are 
many  exceptions  to  this  rule.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
calyx  and  corolla  are  in  no  way  distinguishable  except 
by  position.  The  outer  circle  is  the  calyx,  whatever 
be  its  form  or  color ;  and  the  inner,  if  there  be  more 
than  one,  is  the  corolla. 

88.  Both  blade  and  petiole  are  distinguishable  in 
the  floral  leaves,  especially  in  the  petals.  The  blade, 
or  expanded  part,  is  here  called  limb,  or  lamina ;  the 
petiolar  part,  when  narrowed  into  a  stalk,  is  called  the 
claw.  In  form,  or  outline,  there  is  a  general  resem- 


30,  31.] 


THE    FLORAL    ENVELOPES. 


37 


blance  between  the  limb  and  the  leaf.  It  is  ovate, 
oval,  lanceolate,  obcordate,  orbicular,  etc.  In  margin 
it  is  generally  entire.  (See  §  308.) 

89.  Some  peculiar  forms,  however,  should  be  noticed, 
as  the  bilobate  petal  of  the  Chickweed  (44),  the  pin- 
natifid  petal  of  Miterwort  (43),  the  inflected  petal  of 
the  Umbelliferse  (42),  the  fan-shaped  petal  of  Pink,  the 
fringed  (fimbriate)  petal  of  Campion  (Silene  stellata) 
(40),  the  hooded  sepal  of  Napellus  (29),  the  saccate 


Forms  of  petals.— -39,  Buttercup,  showing  the  scale  at  base.  40,  Mignonette,  fringed  at  top.  41,  Silene 
stellata,  fringed  and  unguiculate.  42,  Flower  of  Osmorhiza  longistylis,  petals  inflected.  43,  Flower  ot 
Mitella  diphylla,  petals  pectinate-pinnatifid.  44,  Petal  of  Cerastium  uutans,  2-cleft. 

petal  of  Calceolaria,  Cypripedium  (71).  The  limb  is, 
moreover,  often  distorted  into  a  true  nectary,  spurred 
(see  §  78),  or  otherwise  deformed,  as  in  Napellus, 
Coptis,  etc. 

90.  We  have  seen  that  the  floral  organs  are  often 
in  various  ways  united.  A  calyx  with  its  sepals  united 
into  a  tube  or  cup  was  formerly  said  to  be  monosepal- 
ous,  and  a  similar  corolla  was  called  monopetalous ; 
gamosepalous  and  gamopetalous  are  now  substituted 
for  those  words.  Polysepalous  -  is  applied  to  a  calyx 
with  distinct  sepals,  a  corolla  with  separate  petals  is 
polypetalous. 

Gamosepalous  and  gamopetalous  have  in  Germany  given  place  to  the  more 
appropriate  words  synsepalous  and  sympetalous. 

Polysepalous  and  polypetalous  have  also  been  superseded  by  the  more  accurate 
terms  aposepalous  and  apopetalous. 


38 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[31,  32. 


91.  The  gamosepalous  calyx,  or  gamopetalous  co- 
rolla, although  thus   compounded   of   several  pieces,  is 
usually  described  as  a  simple  organ,  wheel-shaped,  cup- 
shaped,  tubular,  according   to  .the  degree  of  cohesion. 
The   lower  part    of  it,   formed    by  the    united    claws, 
whether  long  or  short,  is  the   tube;    the  upper    part, 
composed  of  the   confluent   laminae,  is  the   border,   or 
limb;  the  opening  of  the  tube  above  is  the  throat. 

92.  The  border  is   either    lobed,    toothed,    crenate, 
etc.,  by  the    distinct   ends  of  the  pieces  composing  it, 
as   in    the    calyx    of    Pink,  the    calyx    and    corolla  of 
Primula,  Phlox,  and  Bellwort,  or  it  may  become,  by  a 
complete   lateral  cohesion,  entire,   as  in  the  Morning- 
glory.      Here   the   compound  nature    of    the    organ    is 
shown  by  the  seams  alone. 

93.  A  terminal  cohesion,  where  summit  as  well  as 
sides  are  joined,  forming  a  cap  rather  than  cup,  rarely 
occurs,  as  in  the  calyx  of  the  garden  Eschscholtzia  and 
the  corolla  of  the  Grape. 


45 


45,  Flower  of  Saponaria  (Bouncing  Bet);  petals  and  claws  quite  distinct.  46,  Phlox;  claws  united, 
with  lamina  distinct.  47,  Spigelia  (Pink -root;,  petals  still  further  united.  48,  Quamoclit  coccinea  ;  petals 
united  throughout. 

94.    The   modes   of  adhesion    are  various    and    im- 
portant,  furnishing    some    of    the    most    valuable   dis- 


32,  33.] 


THE    FLORAL    ENVELOPES. 


39 


tinctive  characters.  An  organ  is  said  to  be  adherent 
when  it  is  conjoined  with  some  dissimilar  organ,  as 
stamen  with  pistil.  All  the  organs  of  our  typical 
flower  are  described  as  free. 

95.    The    term    hypogynous    (£TTG>,    under,    yw^   the 
pistil)   is  an   adjective  in   frequent  use,  denoting  that 


50 

the  organs  are  inserted  into  the  torus  under,  or  at  the 
base  of  the  ovary  or  pistil.  Organs  so  situated  are,  of 
course,  in  the  normal  condition  and  free,  there  being 
no  adhesions.  Observe  and  explain  the  sections  of 
Jeffersonia  and  Violet  (49,  50). 

96.  Perigynous  (Trep/,  around)   is  a  term  applicable 
to  the  stamens  and  pet- 
als only,  and  implies  that 

they  are  (apparently)  in- 
serted on  the  calyx  or 
corolla  around  the  free 
ovary.  In  Phlox,  the 
stamens  are  perigynous 
on  the  corolla-tube.  In 
Cherry  and  Plum,  the 
petals  and  stamens  are  perigynous  on  the  calyx-tube. 
(See  51.) 

97.  Epigynous   (err/,  upon)   denotes  that  the  organs 


40 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[33,  34. 


are  inserted  (apparently)  upon  the  ovary,  as  appears 
in  Apple,  Pear,  Caraway,  Sunflower.  (See  cuts  42, 
51.)  The  common  phrases  "calyx  superior,"  "ovary 
inferior,"  have  the  same  signification  as  "calyx  epigy- 
nous,"  all  implying  the  apparent  insertion  of  the 
organs  upon  or  above  the  ovary.  In  this  condition 


52,  Ribes  aureum  and  (54)  Fuchsia  gracilis  ;  ovary  inferior  or  adherent,  stamens  and  petals  epigynous 
(above  the  adherent  ovary).    53,  Saxifraga  Virginiensis ;  ovary  half-superior. 

all  the  organs,  or  at  least  the  calyx,  are  blended  with 
the  ovary  to  its  top.  Hence  the  phrases  "ovary  adher- 
ent," or  "calyx  adherent,"  have  also  the  same  mean- 
ing, and  are  preferable,  because  in  accordance  with  the 
fact.  (Explain  the  sections  of  Golden  Currant  and 
Ear-drop  — 52,  54.) 

98.  Calyx  inferior  or  free,  ovary  superior  or  free, 
are  all  phrases  of  the  same  import  as  calyx  hypogy- 
nous.  Between  the  two  conditions,  calyx  superior  and 
calyx  inferior,  there  are  numerous  gradations,  of  which 
one  only  is  defined,  to  wit,  calyx  half-superior,  as  ex- 
emplified in  the  Mock-orange  and  Saxifrage  (53). 


34,  35.] 


FOEMS    OF    THE    PERIANTH. 


X 


CHAPTER  VI. 


FORMS    OF    THE    PERIANTH. 


99.  The  innumerable  forms  of  the  perianth,  whether 
calyx  or  corolla,  or  both,  are  first  to  be  distinguished 
as  POLYPETALOUS  or  GAMOPETALOUS,  and  secondly,  as 
regular  or  irregular.  The  POLYPETALOUs-reg^Zar  forms 
are  typified  by  the  four  figures  below,  and  described 
in  the  following  paragraphs. 


Forms  of  corollas.— '55,  Cheiranlhus  (Stock).    56,  Silene  regia  (Scarlet  Catchfly).    57,  Pyrus  coronaria. 
58,  Amaryllis  (Atamasco  Lily). 

100.  First,  Cruciform  (crucis,  of  a  cross)  or  cross- 
shaped  corollas  consist  of  four  long-clawed  petals, 
placed  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  as  in  Mustard, 
Wall-flower  (55).  2d,  Caryophyllaceous  or  pink-like 
corollas  consist  of  five  petals  with  long,  erect  claws, 
and  spreading  laminae;  as  in  the  Pink  (56).  3d, 
Rosaceous  or  rose-like  corollas  are  composed  of  five 
short-clawed  open  petals;  as  in  the  Rose  (Fig.  57). 
4th,  Liliaceous  flowers,  like  the  Lilies,  consist  of  a. 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[35. 


six-leaved  perianth ;    each  leaf  gradually  spreading  so 
as  to  resemble,  as  a  whole,  the  funnel-form  (58). 

101.  Polypetalous-irregular  forms  (59,  71)  may  gen- 
erally be  referred  to  these  two  types  —  the  papiliona- 
ceous and  the  orchidaceous.  The  Papilionaceous  (pa- 
pilio,  butterfly)  corolla  or  flower  may  consist  of  five 
dissimilar  petals,  designated  thus :  the  upper,  largest, 
and  exterior  petal  is  the  banner  (vexillum) ;  the  two 
lateral,  half-exterior,  are  the  wings  (alee) ;  the  two 
lower,  interior  petals,  often  united  at  their  lower  mar- 
gin, are  the  keel  (carina).  The  flowers  of  the  Pea, 


59,  Papilionaceous  flower  of  the  Pea,    60,  Displayed:   v,  the  vexillum;  a,  a,  the  alae;  c,  c,  the  carina. 
61,  Section  of  flower  of  Dicentra  Cucullaria. 

Locust,  Clover,  and  of  the  great  family  of  the  Legu- 
minosse  in  general  are  examples.  The  Orchidaceous 
is  a  form  of  the  perianth  peculiar  to  the  Orchis,  and 
to  that  large  and  singular  tribe  in  general.  It  is  a 
6 -parted  double  perianth,  very  irregular,  characterized 
chiefly  by  its  lip,  which  is  the  upper  petal  (lower  by 
the  twisting  of  the  ovary)  enlarged  and  variously 
deformed. 

102.  Gamopetalous-regular  perianths  (62-67)  may 
include  mainly  the  following  forms,  although  some  of 
them  may  become  irregular.  First,  Rotate,  wheel- 
shaped;  or  star-shaped,  is  a  form  with  tube  very  short, 


36,  36.] 


FORMS    OF    THE    PERIANTH. 


43 


if  any,  and  a  flat,  spreading  border ;  as  the  calyx  of 
Chickweed,  corolla  of  Trientalis,  Elder.  It  is  some- 
times a  little  irregular,  as  in  Mullein.  2d,  Cup-shaped, 
with  pieces  cohering  into  a  concave  border,  as  in  the 
calyx  of  Mallows,  corolla  of  Kalmia,  etc.  3d,  Cam- 
panulate,  or  bell-shaped ;  when  the  tube  widens  ab- 
ruptly at  base  and  gradually  in  the  border,  as  in 


Forms  of  corollas.— -62,  Campanula  Americana;  rotate.     63,  Campanula  divaricata.     64,  Andromeda; 
urceolate.     65,  Convolvulus  (Morning-glory).     66,  Petunia.     67,  Lonicera  sempervirens  (Honeysuckle). 

68,  Dandelion;   ligulate  corolla  (c),  5-toothed;   a,  five    anthers  united  into  a  tube  around  «,  the  style. 

69,  Synandra  grandiflora,  ringent,  upper  lip  2-lobed,  lower  3-lobed.    70,  Linaria  (yellow  Snapdragoi,),  per- 
sonate.   71,  Cypripedium  acaule,  orchidaceous. 

the  Harebell,  Canterbury-bell.  4th,  Urceolate,  urn- 
shaped  ;  an  oblong  or  globular  corolla  with  a  narrow 
opening,  as  the  Whortleberry,  Heath.  5th,  Funnel- 
form  (infundibuliform),  narrow-tubular  below,  gradu- 
ally enlarging  to  the  border,  as  Morning-glory.  6th, 
Salver-form  (hypocrateriform),  the  tube  ending  ab- 
ruptly, in  a  horizontal  border,  as  in  Phlox,  Petunia, 
both  of  which  are  slightly  irregular.  7th,  Tubular,  a 


44  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [36,  37. 

cylindraceous  form  spreading  little  or  none  at  the  bor- 
der ;  as  the  calyx  of  the  Pink,  corolla  of  the  Honey- 
suckle. It  is  often  a  little  curved.  Tubular  flowers 
are  common  in  the  Compositae,  as  the  Thistle,  Sun- 
flower, when  they  are  often  associated  with  the  next 
form,  the  ligulate. 

103.  Gamopetalous  -  irregular    perianths    may   be 
either  ligulate  or  labiate.     The  ligulate  corolla  (ligula, 
tongue)   is  formed  as  if  by  splitting  a  tubular  corolla 
on  one  side.      The  notches  at  the  end  plainly  indicate 
the  number  of   united  petals  composing  it,  as  also  do 
the  parallel   longitudinal  seams.      (See   Figs.    68,    69.) 
The    labiate,    bilabiate    or   lip-shaped,    resembling    the 
mouth  of  some  animal,  is  a  very  common  form,  result- 
ing from  the  unequal  union  of  the  parts,  accompanied 
with  other  irregularities.      In  the  labiate  corolla  three 
petals  unite  more   or   less  to  form  the  lower  lip,  and 
two  to  form  the  upper.      In  the  calyx,  when  bilabiate, 
this  rule  is  reversed,  according  to  the  law  of  alterna- 
tion of  organs ;   two  sepals  are  united  in  the  lower  lip 
and  three  in  the  upper,  as   seen  in  the  Sage  and  the 
Labiate   Order  generally.      Labiate   flowers  are  said  to 
be  galeate  or  helmeted  when  the  upper  lip  is  concave, 
as  in  Catmint ;  ringent  or  gaping  when  the  throat  or 
mouth  is  wide  open  (69);   personate  or  masked  when 
the  throat  is  closed  as  with  a  palate,  like  the  Snap- 
dragon (70). 

104.  Certain  reduced  forms  of  the  perianth  should 
be  noticed  in   this  place.      The  Pappus  (ndTnros,  grand- 
father, alluding  to  his  gray  hairs)  is  the  hair-like  calyx 
of  the  florets  of  the    Compositse,    and    other    kindred 
Orders.      The  florets  of  this  Order    are  collected  into 
heads  so  compactly  that  the  calyxes  have  not  room 


37,  38.] 


FORMS    OF    THE    PERIANTH. 


45 


for  expansion  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  pappus  is 
commonly  persistent,  and  often  increases  as  the  fruit 
matures,  forming  a  feathery  sail  to  waft  away  the 
seed  through  the  air,  as  in  the  Dandelion  and  Thistle. 
It  varies  greatly  in  form  and  size,  as  seen  in  the  cuts ; 
sometimes  consisting  of  scales,  sometimes  of  hairs, 
again  of  feathers  or  bristles.  Sometimes  it  is  mounted 
on  a  stipe,  which  is  the  beak  of  the  fruit. 


Cypsela  (incorrectly  called  akenium)  of  the  Composite,  with  various  forms  of  pappus.  72,  Ecripta 
procumbens,  no  pappus.  73,  Ambrosia  trifida.  74,  Helianthus  grosse-serratus,  pappus  2-awned.  75. 
Ageratum  conizoides,  pappus  of  five  scales.  76,  Mulgedium,  capillary  pappus— cypsela  slightly  rostrate. 
"7,  Lactuca  elongata,  rostrate  cypsela. 

105.  Again  :   the  calyx,  or  the  limb  of  the  calyx,  is 
reduced  to  a  mere  rim,  as  seen  in  the  Umbelliferse. 
In    the  Amentaceous  Orders,  the  whole    perianth    di- 
minishes to  a  shallow  cup,  as  in  the  Poplar  and  Wil- 
low,  or  altogether    disappears,   as  in    the   Birch,   Ash, 
and  Lizard-tail  (15,  16). 

106.  Setae,  meaning  bristles   in  general,  is  a  term 
specifically  used  to  denote  the  reduced  perianth  of  the 
sedges.    In  the  Bog-rush  (Scirpus)  there  is,  outside  the 
stamens,  a  circle  of  six  setae,  representing  a   6 -leaved 
perianth    (78).      In  the  Cotton-grass  (Eriophorum)  the 
setae  are  multiplied  and  persistent  on  the  fruit,  becom- 
ing long  and  cotton-like. 

107.  Perigynium   is   the  name  given  to  the  urceo- 
late  perianth  of  Carex,  investing  the  ovary,  but  allow- 
ing the  style  to  issue  at  its  summit.     It  is  composed 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[38,  39. 


of  two  united  sepals,  as  indicated  by  the  two  teeth  at 
the  top  (79). 

108.  Glumes    and    pales   represent    the    floral    en- 
velopes, or  rather  the  involucre 

of  the  Grasses  (436).  Their  al- 
ternating arrangement  clearly 
distinguishes  them  from  a  peri- 
anth. 

109.  The    duration   of  the 
calyx  and  corolla  varies  widely, 
and  is  marked  by  certain  gen- 
eral   terms.       It    is    caducous 
when   it   falls  off  immediatelv, 

78,  Flower  of  Scirpus  lacustris,  magni- 
aS      the        CalyX        Of       Poppy,       CO-        fied?  consisting  of  six  seta?,  three  stamens, 

rolla     of     Grape  ;      deciduous 
when  it  falls  with  the  stamens, 
as  in    most    plants;    and  per- 
sistent, if  it  remain  until  the  fruit  ripens,  as  the  calyx 
of  Apple.      If  it  continue  to  grow  after  flowering,  it  is 
accrescent;    and  if  it  wither  without  falling  off,  it  is 
marescent 


78 


three  pistils  united,  except  the  stigmas. 
79,  Flower  of  Carex  rivularis  Q  ,  with  g, 
its  glume,  p,  its  bottle-shaped  perigynium, 
2-toothed  at  top,  enveloping  the  triple 
ovary  ;  stigmas,  three. 


X 


CHAPTER    VII. 


OF    THE    ESSENTIAL    ORGANS. — THE    STAMENS. 


110.  Within  the  safe  enclosure  of  the  floral  envel- 
opes stand  the  essential  organs — the  stamens  and  pis- 
tils —  clearly  distinguishable  from  the  perianth  by  their 
more  slight  and  delicate  forms,  and  from  each  other  by 
various  marks.  In  the  complete  flower  the  ANDRCECEUM 
next  succeeds  the  corolla  in  the  order  of  position, 
being  the  third  set,  counting  from  the  calyx. 


39,  40.] 


THE    ESSENTIAL    ORGANS. 


111.  A. perfect  stamen  consists  of  two  parts  —  the 
filament,  corresponding  with  the  petiole  of  the  typical 
leaf ;  and  the  anther,  answering  to  the  blade.  Within 
the  cells  of  the  anther  the  pollen  is  produced,  a  sub- 
stance essential  to  the  fertility  of  the  flower.  Hence 
the  anther  alone  is  the  essential  part  of  the  stamen. 


80,  Andrcecium  and  gyncecium  of  Frankenia  (after  Peyer).  81,  Stamen  (adnate)  of  Morning-glory. 
82,  Same  enlarged,  with  pollen  grains  discharged  ;  /,  filament ;  a,  a,  anther,  2-lobed  ;  c,  top  of  the  con- 
nectile.  83.  Ranunculus.  84,  Same,  cut  transversely.  85,  Iris,  cut  transversely  (extrorse).  86,  Ama- 
ryllis, versatile.  87,  Larkspur,  innate.  88,  Same,  cut. 

112.  The  filament  (filum,  a  thread)  is  the  stalk  sup- 
porting the   anther  at  or  near  its  top.     It  is  ordinarily 
slender,  yet  sustaining  itself  with   the   anther  in  posi- 
tion.    Sometimes   it   is   capillary,  and  pendulous  with 
its  weight,  as  in  the  Grasses. 

113.  The  anther  is  regularly  an  oblong  body  at  the 
summit  of  the  filament,  composed  of  two  hollow  par- 
allel lobes  joined  to  each  other  and  to  the  filament  by 
the    connectile.     In    front    of    the    connectile,    looking 
toward  the  pistil,   there  is   usually  a  furrow;    on  its 
back   a  ridge,  and  on  the  face   of  each  lobe  a  seam, 
the   usual  place  of  dehiscence  or  opening,  all  running 
parallel  with  the  filament  and  connectile. 

114.  The  stamen,  as  thus  described,  may  be  considered  regular  or  typical 
in  form,  and  is  well  exemplified  in  that  of  the  Buttercup  (Fig.  83).    But  the 
variations  of  structure  are  as  remarkable  here  as  in  other  organs,  depending 
on  such  circumstances  as ;   1st,  The  attachment  of  filament  to  anther.    This 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[40. 


may  occur  in  three  ways.  The  anther  is  said  to  be  innate  when  it  stands  cen- 
trally erect  on  the  top  of  the  filament;  adnate  when  it  seems  attached  to  one 
side  of  the  filament ;  versatile  when  connected  to  the  top  of  the  filament  by  a 
single  point  in  the  back.  2d,  The  modes  of  Dehiscence,  or  opening,  are  also 
three  — viz.,  valvular,  where  the  seam  opens  vertically  its  whole  length,  which 
is  the  usual  way;  porous,  where  the  cells  open  by  a  chink  or  pore,  usually  at 
the  top,  as  in  Rhododendron  and  Potato ;  opercular,  when  by  a  lid  opening  up- 
ward, as  in  Sassafras,  Berberis  (92).  3d,  The  facing  of  the  anther  is  also  an 
important  character.  It  is  introrse  when  the  lines  of  dehiscence  look  toward 
the  pistil,  as  in  Violet ;  extrorse  when  they  look  outward  toward  the  corolla,  as 
in  Iris.  4th,  The  connectUe  is  usually  a  mere  prolongation  of  the  filament,  ter- 
minating, not  at  the  base,  but  at  the  top  of  the  anther.  If  it  fall  short,  the 
anther  will  be  emarginate.  Sometimes  it  outruns  the  anther,  and  tips  it  with  a 
terminal  appendage  of  some  sort,  as  in  Violet,  Oleander,  and  Paris.  Again, 
its  base  may  be  dilated  into  spurs,  as  in  two  of  the  stamens  of  Violet.  5th,  If 
the  connectile  be  laterally  dilated,  as  we  see  gradually  done  in  the  various 
species  of  the  Labiate  Order,  the  lobes  of  the  anther  will  be  separated,  form- 
ing two  dimidiate  (halved)  anthers  on  one  filament,  as  in  Sage  and  Brunella. 
Such  are,  of  course,  1-celled  (96). 
P 


9r> 


Peculiar  forma  of  stamens. — 89,  Pyrola  rotundifolia  ;  p,  dehiscence  by  pores  at  top.  90,  Vaccinium 
uliginosum  ;  p,  dehiscence.  91.  Berberis  aquifolium,  anthers  opening  (92)  by  valves  upward.  93,  Anther 
of  Violet,  introrse,  with  an  appendage  at  top.  94,  Oleander,  sagittate,  appendaged.  95,  Catalpa,  lobes  of 
anther  separated.  93,  Sage,  lobes  of  anther  widely  separated,  on  stipes  ;  b,  barren  lobe  without  pollen. 
97,  Malva,  anther  1-celled.  98,  Ephedra  (after  Peyer),  anther  4-celled. 

115.  The  cells  of  the  anthers  are  at  first  commonly 
four,  all  parallel,  becoming  two  only  at  maturity.      In 
some  plants  the  four  are  retained,  as  in  the  anthers  of 
Ephedra    (98).      In    others,    as    Mallows,    all    the    cells 
coalesce  into  one  (97). 

116.  Appendages  of  many  kinds  distinguish  the  stamens  of  different  spe- 
cies.   In  the  Ericaceae  there  are  horns,  spurs,  tails,  queues,  etc.    In  Onions  and 
Garlic,  the  filament  is  2  or  3  forked,  bearing  the  anther  on  one  of  the  tips. 
Sometimes  a  pair  of  appendages  appear  at  base,  as  if  stipulate.     It  is  often 
conspicuously  clothed  with  hairs,  as  in  Tradescantia.    (See  89-94.) 

117.  Staminodia,  or  sterile  filaments  with  abortive  anthers  or  none,  occur 
singly  in  many  of  the  Figworts  and  Labiates,  or  in  entire  whorls  next  within 
the  petals,  alternating  with  them,  as  in  Loose-strife.     The  curious  fringes  of 
the  Passion-flower  are  regarded  as  composed  of  staminodia  (112). 


41.1 


THE    ESSENTIAL    ORGANS. 


118.  The  number  of  the  stamens  is  said  to  be  defi- 
nite when  not  exceeding  twenty,  as  is  sometimes 
definitely  expressed  by  such  terms  as  follow,  com- 
pounded of  the  Greek  numerals  —  viz.,  monandrous, 


101 


Essential  organs.— 99,  Rhododendron,  five  stamens  («),  one  pistil  (p),  oblique  or  slightly  irregular.  100, 
Flower  of  ^Esculus  (Buckeye),  regular,  5-toothed  calyx  (c),  very  irregular  4-petalled  corolla,  seven  stamens 
unequal,  one  style  (s).  101,  Flower  of  Hydrastis  ;  s,  sepals  deciduous. 

having  one  stamen  to  each   flower ;  diandrous,  with 

two   stamens;  petandrous,  with   five  stamens.    If  the 

number    exceeds    twenty,   it    is   said  to   be    indefinite 
(denoted  thus,  oo )  or  polyandrous. 


104 


102.  Stamens  (diadelphous)  of  a  Leguminous  plant.    103,  Stamens  (syngenesious)  of  a  Composite  ;  /, 
filaments  distinct ;  a,  anthers  united  ;  s,  stigmas  revolute,  etc.    104,  Tetradynamous  stamens  of  a  Crucifer. 

105,  Gynandrous  column  of  Cypripedium  ;  o,  ovary  ;  r,  torus  ;  »,  sterile  stamen  ;  a,  twopollinia  ;  c,  stigma. 

106,  Didynamous  stamens  of  Lophospermum. 

119.   The  position  or  insertion  of  the  stamens  (§55) 
may  be  more  definitely  stated  here  as  hypogynous,  on 


50  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [41,  42. 

the  receptacle  below  the  ovaries;  perigynous,  on  the 
calyx  around  the  ovary ;  epipetalous,  on  the  corolla,  as 
in  Phlox ;  epigynous,  on  the  ovary  at  its  summit,  and 
gynandrous  (y^,  pistil,  dv6pe$,  stamens)  on  the  pistil, 
that  is,  when  the  stamens  are  adherent  to  the  style, 
as  in  Orchis.  Inequality  in  length  is  definitely  marked 
in  two  cases,  as  tetradynamous  (rerpa^  four,  dvvaiiu;, 
power)  when  the  stamens  are  six,  whereof  four  are 
longer  than  the  other  two,  as  in  all  the  Crucifers ; 
didynamous,  where  the  stamens  are  four,  two  of  them 
longer  than  the  other  two,  as  in  all  the  Labiates  (104, 
106). 

120.  Cohesion  is  as  frequent  with  stamens  as  with 
petals.      They   are    monadelphous    (adeA06^    a   brother) 
when  they  are   all  united,  as  in  Mallow,  into  one  set 
or  brotherhood  by  the   filaments ;   diadelphous  in  two 
sets,   whether   equal   or   unequal,   as   in   Pea,   Squirrel- 
corn  ;  polyadelphous,  many  sets,  as  in  St.  Johnswort ; 
and  syngenesious,  when   they  are  united  by  their  an- 
thers,  as   in   the    Compositse.    Finally,  the   absence  of 
the  stamens  altogether,  whether  by  abortion,  as  in  the 

?  flowers  of  Veratrum,  or  by  suppression,  as  in  Oak, 
occurs  in  various  modes,  rendering  the  plant  monoe- 
cious (5),  dioecious  ($  $),  or  polygamous  ($  $  ?),  as 
already  explained  (§  67). 

121.  The   pollen   is  in  appearance   a  small,  yellow 
dust,    contained    in    the    cells    of    the    anther.     When 
viewed   with   the  microscope,  it  appears  as   grains  of 
various   forms,  usually  spheroidal  or  oval,   sometimes 
triangular  or  polyhedral,  but  always  of  the  same  form 
and  appearance  in   the  same  species.    Externally  they 
are  curiously,  and  often  elegantly  figured  with  stripes, 
bands,    dots,  checks,  etc.    Each    grain    of   pollen   is  a 


42,  43.] 


THE    ESSENTIAL    ORGANS. 


51 


membranous  cell  or  sac  containing  a  fluid.    Its  coat  is 
double  —  the  outer  is  more  thick   and  firm,  exhibiting 


Patten  grains.— Vfl,  Pinus  larico.    108,  Basella  rubra.    109,  Ranunculus  repens.    110,  Scolymus  grandi- 
florus.    Ill,  Passiflora  incarnata. 

one  or  more  breaks  where  the  inner  coat,  which  is 
very  thin  and  expansible,  is  uncovered.  In  the  fluid 
are  suspended  mol- 
ecules of  inconceiv- 
a  b  1  e  minuteness, 
said  to  possess  a 
tremulous  motion. 
When  the  mem- 
brane is  exposed  to 
moisture,  it  swells 
and  bursts,  d  i  s- 
charging  its  con- 
tents. 

1  Z  L.     in     I  112^  gection  of  the  Passion.flower  (passiflora  coerulea);  6,  bracts 

r»V»irlcj    a-nrl     QilV-wroorl      of  the  involucre  ;  s,  sepals  ;  p,  petals  ;  a,  a,  staminodia  or  sterile 

iiKweea  filaments .  c>  stipe .  0>  ovary .  d  Stamen8 .  t>  8tigmas> 
tribe,   the    pollen 

grains  do  not  separate  as  into  a  dust  or  powder,  but 
all  cohere  into  masses  called  POLLINIA,  accompanied  by 
a  viscid  fluid. 


52  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [43,  44. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

OF    THE    ESSENTIAL    ORGANS. — THE    PISTILS. 

123.  The  Gynaeceum  occupies  the  center  of  the 
flower,  at  the  termination  of  the  axis.  It  consists 
regularly  of  a  circle  of  distinct  pistils  (§  60),  sym- 
metrical in  number  with  the  other  circles.  It  is  sub- 
ject to  great  variation.  The  pistil  may  be  distinct 
and  simple,  as  in  Columbine,  or  coherent  in  various 
degrees  into  a  compound  body,  as  in  St.  Johnswort. 
Also  instead  of  being  free  and  superior,  as  it  regularly 
should  be,  it  may  adhere  to  the  other  circles,  as 
already  explained  (§  97),  and  become  inferior ;  that 
is,  apparently  placed  below  the  flower,  as  in  the  Cur- 
rant (52). 

124.  The    number  of   the  pistils  is   by  no  means 
confined  to  the  radical  of  the  flower.      They  may  be 
increased  by  multiples,  becoming  a  spiral  on  a  length- 
ened receptacle,  as   in  Tulip-tree,  or  still  remaining  a 
circle,  as  in  Poppy.      On  the  other  hand,  they  may  be 
reduced  in  number  often  to  one,  as  in  Cherry  and  Pea. 
Certain  terms  are   employed  to  denote  the  number  of 
pistils  in  the  flower,   such    as   monogynous,  with   one 
pistil ;    trigynous,  with  three ;  polygynous,  with  many, 
etc. 

125.  The  simple  pistil  may  usually  be  known  from 
the    compound,    by  its    one-sided    forms  —  having  two 
sides  similar  and  two  dissimilar.      If  the  pistils  appear 
distinct,  they  are   all  simple,   never  being  united  into 
more    than    one  set,  as  the   stamens  often  are.     The 


44,  45.] 


THE    ESSENTIAL    ORGANS. 


53 


parts  of  a  simple  pistil  are  three  —  the  ovary  (o,  113) 
at  base,  the  stigma  (s)  at  the  summit,  and  the  style 
(sty)  intervening.  Like  the  filament,  the  style  is  not 
essential ;  and  when  it  is  wanting,  the  stigma 
is  sessile  upon  the  ovary,  as  in  Anemone  (116). 
In  order  to  understand  the  relation  of  these 
parts,  we  must  needs  first  study — 

126.    The  morphology  of  the    pistil. —As 


113 


114 


116 


113,  Pistil  of  Tobacco.     114,  Pistil,  stamens,  and  calyx  of  Azalea.     115,  Trillium— stigmas  (d)  and  anthers 
(s)  nearly  sessile.     116,  Pistils  of  Rue  Anemone  (A.  thcUictroides)-^stigm&a  sessile. 

before  stated,  the  pistil  consists  of  a  modified  leaf 
called  a  carpel  (nap-nog,  fruit),  or  carpellary  leaf.  This 
leaf  is  folded  together  toward  the  axis,  so  that  the 
upper  surface  becomes  the  inner,  while  the  lower  be- 
comes the  outer  surface  of  the  ovary.  By  this  arrange- 
ment two  sutures  or  seams  will  be  formed — the  dorsal, 
at  the  back,  by  the  midvein  ;  the  ventral,  in  front,  by 
the  joined  margins  of  the  leaf.  This  view  of  the 
pistil  is  remarkably  confirmed  and  illustrated  by  the 
flowers  of  the  Double  Cherry  (124,  125),  where  the 
pistil  may  be  seen  in  every  degree  of  transition,  re- 
verting toward  the  form  of  a  leaf.  This  carpellary 
leaf  stands  in  the  place  of  the  pistil,  having  the  edges 
infolded  toward  each  other,  the  midvein  prolonged  and 
dilated  at  the  apex,  as  shown  in  125. 


STRUCTUEAL    BOTANY. 


[45,  46. 


127.  The  placentae  are  usually  prominent  lines  or 
ridges  extending  along  the  ventral  suture  within  the 
cell  of  the  ovary,  and  bearing  the  ovules.      They  are 
developed  at  each  of  the  two  edges  of  the  carpellary 
leaf,  and  are  consequently  closely  parallel  when  those 
edges  are  united,  forming  one  double  placenta  in  the 
cell  of  each  ovary. 

128.  The  simple  carpel,  with  all  its  parts,  is  completely  exemplified  in  the 
Pea-pod.    When  this  is  laid  open  at  the  ventral  suture,  the  leaf  form  becomes 
manifest,  with  the  peas  (ovules)  arranged  in  an  alternate  order  along  each 
margin,  so  as  to  form  but  one  row  when  the  pod  is  closed.     In  the  pod  of 
Columbine  (127),  the  ovules  form  two  distinct  rows,  in  the  simple  Plum  car- 
pel, each  margin  bears  a  single  ovule ;  and  in  the  one-ovuled  Cherry,  only  one 
of  the  margins  is  fruitful. 


117,  Simple  pistil  of  Strawberry,  the  style  lateral.  118,  Simple  pistil  of  Crowfoot,  cut  to  show  the 
ovule.  119,  Simple  pistil  of  the  Cherry.  120,  Vertical  section  showing  the  ovule  (o),  style  (s),  stigma  (a). 
121,  Cross-section  of  the  same.  122,  Compound  pistil  of  Spring-beauty.  123,  Cross-section  of  the  same, 
showing  the  three  cells  of  the  ovary.  124,  Expanded  carpellary  leaf  of  the  Double  Cherry.  125,  The  same 
partly  folded,  as  if  to  form  a  pistil. 

129.  The    stigma   is   the    glandular    orifice  of  the 
ovary,    communicating    with     it     either     directly    or 
through    the    tubiform    style.      It    is    usually    globular 
and  terminal,  often  linear  and  lateral,  but  subject  to 
great  variations  in  form.      It  is  sometimes  double  or 
halved,   or    2-lobed,    even  when  belonging   to  a  single 
carpel  or  to  a  simple  style,  as  in  Linden,  where  these 
carpels  are  surmounted  by  three  pairs  of  stigmas. 

130.  The   compound  pistil   consists   of  the   united 
circle  of  pistils,  just  as  the  moruopetalous  corolla  con- 


46.] 


THE    ESSENTIAL    ORGANS. 


55 


sists  of  the  united  circle  of  petals.  The  union  occurs 
in  every  degree,  commencing  at  the  base  of  the  ovary 
and  proceeding  upward.  Thus  in  Columbine,  we  see 
the  carpels  (pistils)  distinct  ;  in  early  Saxifrage,  coher- 
ing just  at  base  ;  in  Pink,  as  far  as  the  top  of  the 
ovaries,  with  styles  distinct ;  in  Spring-beauty,  to  the 
top  of  the  styles,  with  stigmas  distinct ;  and  in  Rho- 
dodendron, the  union  is  complete  throughout. 


132 


126,  Ovary  (follicle)  of  Larkspur,  composed  of  a  single  carpellary  leaf.  127,  Ovaries  of  the  Columbine, 
five,  contiguous  but  Distinct.  128,  Compound  ovary  of  Hypericum,  of  carpels  united  below  with  distinct 
styles.  129,  Ovary  of  another  Hypevicum  of  three  carpels  completely  united.  130,  Ovary  of  Flax;  carpels 
five,  united  below,  distinct  above.  131,  Dianthus  {Pink).  132,  Saxifraga.  *yl 

131.  To  determine  the  number  of  carpels  in  a  com- 
pound ovary  is  an  important  and  sometimes  difficult 
matter.    It  may  be  known  :   1st,  By  the  number  of  the 
styles  ;  or,  2  d,  By  the  number  of  the  free  stigmas  (re- 
membering that  these  organs  are  liable  to  be  halved 
—  §  129)  ;  or,  3d,  By  the  lobes,  angles,  or  seams  of  the 
ovary  ;    or,  4th,  By  the  cells  ;   or,  5th,  By  the  placentae. 
But  in  Dodecatheon,  etc.,  all  these  indications  fail,  so 
perfect  is  the  union,  and  we  are  left  to  decide  from 
analogy  alone. 

132.  The    student    will    notice    two    very    diverse 
modes    of  cohesion    in    the    carpels    of  the  compound 
ovary.      First  and  regularly,  the  carpels  may  each  be 
closed,  as  when  simple,  and  joined  by  their  sides  and 


56 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[46,  47. 


fronts;  as  in  St.  Johnswort  (129)  and  Lily  (171).  In 
this  case,  he  may  prove  the  following  propositions. 
1st.  The  compound  ovary  will  have  as  many  cells  as 
carpels.  2d.  The  partitions  between  the  cells  will  be 
double,  and  alternate  with  the  stigmas.  3d.  A  parti- 
tion dividing  the  cell  of  a  single  carpel  must  be  a 
false  one;  as  occurs  in  Flax  (136).  4th.  The  PLA- 
CENTA, as  well  as  the  ventral  suture,  will  be  axial. 

133.  Again:  the  carpels  may  each  be  opened  and 
conjoined  by  their  edges,  as  are  the  petals  of  a  gamo- 
petalous  corolla.  So  it  is  in  the  ovary  of  Violet  (137) 
and  Rock-rose  (139).  In  this  case,  1st.  There  will  be 
no  partition  (unless  a  false  one,  as  in  the  Crucifers), 
and  but  one  cell ;  2d.  The  Placentce  will  be  parietal, 
i.  e.,  on  the  wall  of  the  cell  (paries,  a  wall). 


140 


135 


133,  Samolus  Valernndi,  section  of  flower  showing  the  free  axial  placenta.  134,  Ovary  of  Scrophula- 
riaceae.  135,  Ovary  of  Tulip.  136,  Cross-section  of  ovary  of  Flax,  5-celled,' falsely  10-celled.  137,  Ovary 
of  Violet,  1-celled.  138,  Ovary  of  Fuchsia,  4-celled.  139,  Ovary  of  Rock-rose,  1-celled,  5-carpelled. 
140,  Gentianaceae,  2-valved,  1-celled. 

134.  Between  the  two  conditions  of  axial  (or  central)  and  parietal  placenta, 
we  find  all  degrees  of  transition,  as  illustrated  in  the  different  species  of   St. 
Johnswort  and  in  Poppy,  where  the  inflected  margins  of  the  carpels  carry  the 
placentae  inward,  well-nigh  to  the  axis.    Moreover,  the  placentae  are  not  al- 
ways mere  marginal  lines,  but  often  wide   spaces  covering  large  portions  of 
the  walls  of  the  cell,  as  in  Poppy  and  Water-lily ;  in  other  cases,  as  Datura 
(168),  they  become  large  and  fleshy,  nearly  filling  the  cell. 

135.  A  free  axial  placenta,  without  partitions,  occurs 
in  some  compound  one-celled  ovaries,  as  in  the  Pink 


47,  48.] 


THE    ESSENTIAL    ORGANS. 


57 


and  Primrose  orders  (133).  This  anomaly  is  explained 
in  two  ways  —  first,  by  the  obliteration  of  the  early- 
formed  partitions,  as  is  actually  seen  to  occur  in  the 
Pinks ;  secondly,  by  supposing  the  placenta  to  be,  at 
least  in  some  cases,  an  axial  rather  than  a  marginal 
growth  —  that  is,  to  grow  from  the  point  of  the  axis 
rather  than  from  the  margin  of  the  carpellary  leaf,  for 
in  Primrose  no  partitions  ever  appear. 

136.  A  few  peculiar  forms  of  the  style  and  stigma  are  worthy  of  note  in 
our  narrow  limits,  as  the  lateral  style  of  Strawberry;  the  basilar  style  of  the 
Labiatse  and  Borrageworts ;  the  branching  style  of  Phyllanthus,  one  of  the 
Euphorbiacese ;  also  the  globular  stigma  of  Mirabilis;  the  linear  stigma  of 
Mediola;  the  feathery  stigma  of  Grasses;  the  filiform  stigma  of  Indian  corn; 
the  lateral  stigma  of  Aster;  the  petaloid  stigmas  of  Iris;  the  capitate  and 
perforated  stigma  of  Violet  (141-149). 


Pistils.— 141,  Symphytum,  basilar  style,  ovary  4-parted.  142,  9  Flower  of  Phyllanthus  (Euphorbiaceae), 
branching  styles.  143,  Mirabilis  Jalapa,  globular  stigma.  144,  Flower  of  Luzula,  stigmas  linear.  145, 
Feathery  stigmas  of  a  Grass.  146,  Stigmas  of  Aster.  147,  Rumex.  148,  Poppy.  149,  Filiform  stigma  of 
Zea  Mays  (Corn). 

137.  In  the  Pine,  Cedar,  and  the  Coniferae  generally, 
both  the  style  and  stigma  are  wanting;  and  the  ovary 
is  represented  only  by  a  flat,  open,  carpellary  scale, 
bearing  the  naked  ovules  at  its  base. 


58 


STKUCTUKAL    BOTANY. 


[48,  49. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE    OVULES. 

138.  The  ovules  are  understood  to  be  transformed 
buds,    destined    to  become   seeds  in   the   fruit.      Their 
development  from  the   margins  and  inner  surface  of 
the  carpel  favors  this  view  ;   for  the  ordinary  leaves  of 
Bryophyllum  and  some  other  plants  do  habitually  pro- 
duce buds  at  their  margin  or  on  their  upper  surface ; 
and   in  the  Mignonette,  ovules  themselves  have  been 
seen  transformed  into  leaves. 

139.  The  number  of  ovules  in  the  ovary  varies  from 
one  to  hundreds.    Thus,  in  Buttercups,  Compositse,  and 
Grasses,  the  ovule  is  solitary;  in  Umbelliferee  it  is  also 


159 


158 


150,  Pistil  of  Celosia ;  the  pericarp  detached,  showing  the  young  ovules.  151,  Flower  of  Rhubarb, 
pericarp  removed,  showing  the  young  ovule.  152,  A  similar  ovule  (orthotropous)  of  Polygonum.  153,  The 
same,  full  grown  ;  foramen  at  top.  154,  Section  showing  its  two  coats,  nucleus,  and  sac.  155,  An«tropons 
ovule,  as  of  Columbine  ;  a,  foramen.  156,  Section  of  same.  157,  Campylotropous  Ovule,  as  of  Bean  ; 
a,  foramen.  158,  Section  of  a  Cherry  ;  ovule  anatropous,  suspended.  159,  Section  of  carpel  of  Ranuncu- 
lus ;  ovule  ascending.  160,  Senecio  ;  ovule  erect.  161,  Hippuris  ;  ovule  pendulous. 

solitary  in  each  of  the  two  carpels;  in  the  Pea  order 
they  are  definite,  being  but  few  ;  in  Mullein  and  Poppy, 
indefinite  (oo),  too  many  to  be  readily  counted.  As  to 


49,  50.]  THE    OVULES.  59 

position,  the  ovule  is  erect  when  it  grows  upward 
from  the  base  of  the  cell,  as  in  Compositse ;  ascending, 
when  it  turns  upward  from  the  side  of  the  cell ;  hori- 
zontal, when  neither  turning  upward  nor  downward; 
pendulous,  when  turned  downward  ;  and  suspended, 
when  growing  directly  downward  from  the  top  of  the 
cell,  as  in  Birch  (158-161). 

140.  The  ovule  at  the  time  of  flowering  is  soft  and 
pulpy,  consisting  of  a  nucellus  within  two  coats,  sup- 
ported on  a  stalk.      The  stalk  is  called  funiculus ;  the 
point  of  its  juncture  with  the  base  of  the  nucellus  is 
the  chalaza.    The  nucellus  was  first  formed ;   then  the 
tegmen,  or  inner  coat,  grew  up  from  the  chalaza  and 
covered   it;   and   lastly   the   outer    coat,   the   testa,  in- 
vested the  whole.     Both  coats  remain  open  at  the  top 
by  a  small  orifice,  the  foramen. 

141.  In   most   cases  the  ovule,  in  the  course  of  its 
growth,  changes  position  —  curving  over  in  various  de- 
grees  upon   its   lengthening   funiculus   or  upon   itself. 
When  no  such  curvature  exists,  and  it  stands  straight, 
as  in  the   Buckwheat   order,  it  is  orthdtropous.     It  is 
anatropous  when  completely  inverted.      In  this  state  a 
portion   of  the  funiculus  adheres  to  the  testa,  forming 
a  ridge  called  raphe,  reaching  from  the  chalaza  to  the 
hilum.    It  is  campylotropous  when  curved  upon  itself. 
In  this  state  the  foramen  is  brought  near  to  the  cha- 
laza, and  both  are  next  the  placenta,  as  in  the  Pinks 
and  Cruciferse ;  and  amphitropous  when  half  inverted, 
so  that  its  axis  becomes  parallel  with  the  placenta,  as 
in  Mallow.    Here   the  raphe   exists,  but  is  short.      In 
campylotropous  ovules  there  is  no  raphe. 

142.  The   ovule   contains  no  young  plant  (embryo) 
yet ;  but  a  cavity,  the  embryo  sac,  is  already  provided 


60  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [50,  51. 

to   receive   it  just  within   the   upper  end   of   the   nu- 
cellus. 

The  relations  of  the  ovule  to  the  pollen  grain  will  be  more  suitably  dis- 
cussed hereafter  under  the  head  of  fertilization.  We  "briefly  remark  here  that 
the  immediate  contact  of  the  two  is  brought  about,  at  the  time  of  flowering, 
by  special  arrangements ;  and  that,  as  the  undoubted  result  of  their  combined 
action,  the  embryo  soon  after  originates  in  the  embryo  sac. 


CHAPTER    X. 

THE    FRUIT.  —  PERICARP. 

143.  After   having  received   the   pollen   which   the 
anthers   have   discharged,  the  pistil  or  its  ovary  con- 
tinues its  growth  and  enlargement,  and  is  finally  ma- 
tured  in  the  form  of  the  peculiar  fruit  of  the  plant. 
The  fruit  is,  therefore,  the  mature  ovary. 

144.  As  to  the  other  organs  of  the  flower,  having  accomplished  their  work 
—  the  fertilization  of  the  ovary— they  soon  wither  and  fall  away.    Some  of 
them,  however,  often  persist,  to  protect  or  become  blended  with  the  ripening 
fruit.    Thus  the  tube  of  the  superior  calyx  (§  97)  always  blends  with  the  ovary 
in  fruit;   as  in  Currant,   Cucumber,  etc.     In  Composites,  the  persistent  limb 
enlarges  into  the  pappus  of  the  fruit.    In  Buttercups,  the  fruit  is  beaked  with 
the  short,  persistent  style.    In  Clematis  and  Q-eum,  it  is  caudate  (tailed)  with 
the  long,  feathery  style.     In  the  Potato  tribe,  Labiatse,  and  many  others,  the 
inferior  calyx  continues  to  vegetate  like  leaves  until  the  fruit  ripens.     In  some 
cases  the  fruit,  so  called,  consists  of  the  receptacle  and  ovaries  blended;  as  in 
Apple  and  Strawberry.    Again— in  Mulberry,  Pig,  and  Pineapple,  the  whole 
inflorescence  is  consolidated  into  the  matured  fruit. 

145.  As  a  rule,  the  structure  of  the  fruit  agrees 
essentially  with  that  of  the  ovary.  In  many  cases, 
however,  the  fruit  undergoes  such  changes  in  the 
course  of  its  growth  from  the  ovary  as  to  disguise  its 
real  structure.  An  early  examination,  therefore,  is 
always  more  reliable  in  its  results  than  a  late  one. 
For  example,  the  acorn  is  a  fruit  with  but  one  cell 


51.] 


THE    FKUIT. 


61 


and  one  seed,  although  its  ovary  had  three  cells  and 
six  ovules !  This  singular  change  is  due  to  the  non- 
developmeiit  of  five  of  its  ovules,  while  the  sixtlf  grew 
the  more  rapidly,  obliterated  the  partitions  by  press- 
ing them  to  the  wall,  and  filled  the  whole  space  it- 
self. Similar  changes  characterize  the  Chestnut,  Hazel- 
nut,  and  that  whole  Order.  The  ovary  of  the  Birch 
is  2-celled,  2-ovuled;  but  by  the  sup- 
pression of  one  cell  with  its  ovule,  the 
fruit  becomes  1 -celled  and  1-seeded. 


165 


104 


163 


162,  Section  of  the  ovary  of  an  acorn,  3-celled,  6-ovuled.  163,  Section  of  ovary  of  Birch,  2-celled, 
2-ovuled.  164,  Vertical  section  of  the  same  in  fruit.  166,  Pericarp  of  Mignonette  open  soon  after  flower- 
ing. 166,  Naked  seed  of  Taxus  Canadensis,  surrounded,  not  covered,  by  the  fleshy  pericarp. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  cells  are  sometimes  multiplied  in  the  fruit  by  the 
formation  of  false  partitions.  Thus  the  pod  of  Thornapple  (Datura)  becomes 
4-celled  from  a  2-celled  ovary ;  and  the  longer  pods  of  some  Leguminous 
plants  have  cross-partitions  formed  between  the  seeds,  and  the  5-celled  ovary 
of  the  Flax  comes  by  false  partitions  to  be  10-celled  (Fig.  136). 

146.  The  Pericarp.  — The  fruit  consists  of  the  peri- 
carp  and  the  seed.     The  pericarp  (™pi,  around)  is  the 
envelope  of  the   seeds,   consisting  of   the   carpels  and 
whatever  other  parts  they  may  be  combined  with.      It 
varies  greatly  in  texture  and  substance  when  mature, 
being  then  either  dry,  as  the  Pea-pod,  or  succulent,  as 
the  Currant.    Dry  pericarps  are  membranous,  or  coria- 
ceous (leathery),  or  woody.      Succulent  pericarps  may 
be  either  wholly  so,  as  the  Grape,  or  partly  so,  as  the 
Peach  and  other  stone  fruits. 

147.  With  very  few  exceptions  the  pericarp  incloses 


62 


STKUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[51,  52. 


the  seed  while  maturing.  In  Mignonette  (165),  how- 
ever, it  opens,  exposing  the  seed,  immediately  after 
flowering.  The  membranous  pericarp  of  Cohosh  (Cau- 
lophyllum)  falls  away  early,  leaving  the  seed  to  ripen 
naked.  In  Yew  (Taxus)  the  seed  is  never  inclosed 
wholly  by  its  fleshy  pericarp ;  but  in  most  of  the  other 
Coniferse,  the  close-pressed,  carpellary  scales  cover  the 
seeds.  One-seeded  fruits,  like  those  of  Buttercups,  etc., 
are  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  naked  seeds. 


172 


Capsule,  167,  of  Scrophulavia,  2-celled;  168,. of  Datura  Stramonium;  169,  of  Iris;  170,  showing  its  mode 
of  dehiscence  (loculicidal).  171,  of  Colchicum,  3-celled.  172,  Regma,  ripe  fruit  of  Geranium,  the  carpels 
(cocci)  separating  from  the  axis  and  bending  upward  on  the  elastic  styles. 

148.  Dehiscence.  —  The  fleshy  pericarp  is  always 
indehiscent.  Its  seeds  are  liberated  only  by  its  decay, 
or  bursting  in  germination.  So  also  in  many  cases 
the  dry  pericarp,  as  the  acorn.  But  more  commonly 
the  dry  fruit,  when  arrived  at  maturity,  opens  in  some 
way,  discharging  its  seeds.  Such  fruits  are  dehiscent. 
Dehiscence  is  either  valvular,  porous,  or  circumscissile ; 
valvular,  when  the  pericarp  opens  vertically  along  the 
sutures,  forming  regular  parts  called  valves.  These 
valves  may  separate  quite  to  the  base,  or  only  at  the 
top,  forming  teeth,  as  in  Chickweed.  "We  notice  four 
modes  of  valvular  dehiscence,  viz. : 


52,  53.]  THE    FRUIT.  63 

1.  Sutural,  when  it   takes  place   at  the  sutures  of 
any  1 -celled  pericarp,  as  Columbine,  Pea,  Violet. 

2.  Septicidal  (septum,  partition,  ccedo,  toj?ut),  when 
it   takes  place   through   the    dissepiments    (which   are 
double,  §  132).     The  carpels  thus  separated  may  open 
severally  by  sutures   (Mallows),  or  remain  indehiscent, 
as  in  Vervain. 

3.  Loculicidal    (loculus,   a  cell,   ccedo,  to   cut),  when 
each  carpel  opens  at  its  dorsal  suture  directly  into  the 
cell  (Evening  Primrose,  Lily).      Here  the   dissepiments 
come  away  attached  to  the  middle  of  the  valves. 

4.  Septifragal  (septum,  and  frango,  to  break),  when 
the  valves   separate   from   the   dissepiments  which   re- 
main still  united  in  the  axis  (Convolvulus). 

173  174 


fi£  (•*  >\ 

A     „,>    //    1        ~        \ 


Dehiscence:  173,  septicidal;  174,  loculicidal;  175,  septifragal. 

149.  Porous  dehiscence  is  exemplified  in  the  Poppy, 
where  the  seeds  escape  by  orifices  near  the  top  of  the 
fruit.  It  is  not  common.  Circumscissile  (circum- 
scindo,  to  cut  around),  when  the  top  of  the  ovary 
opens  or  falls  off  like  a  lid,  as  in  Plantain.  Some 
fruits,  as  the  Gerania  and  Umbelliferse,  are  furnished 
with  a  carpophore,  that  is,  a  slender  column  from  the 
receptacle  —  a  fusiform  torus,  prolonged  through  the 
axis  of  the  fruit,  supporting  the  carpels. 


64: 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[53,  54. 


CHAPTER   XI. 


FORMS    OF    THE    PERICARP. 

150.  The  morphology  of  the  pericarp  is  exceedingly  diversified ;  but  it 
Will  suffice  the  learner  at  first  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  leading  forms 
only,  such  as  are  indicated  in  the  following  synopsis  and  more  definitely 
described  afterward. 

The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  principal  forms  of  Pericarps,  for  the 

blackboard. 

§  1.  Free  Fruits  (formed  by  a  single  Flower). 

*  Pericarps  indehiscent. 

t  With  usually  but  one  seed,  and 
t  Uniform,  or  1-coated. 

1.  Separated  from  the  seed. 

2.  Inflated,  often  breaking  away. 

3.  Inseparable  from  the  seed. 

4.  Invested  with  a  cupule  (involucre). 

5.  Having  winged  appendages. 

t  Double  or  triple-coated,  fleshy  or  fibrous. 

6.  Three-coated.    Stone  cell  entire. 

7.  Two-coated.    Stone  cell  2-parted. 

8.  Drupes  aggregated. 
t  With  two  or  more  seeds, 

t  Tmrnp.rsp.fi  in  a  fleshy  or  pulpy  mass. 

9.  Kind  membranous. 

10.  Rind  leathery,  separable. 

11.  Rind  hard,  crustaceous. 

t  12.  Inclosed  in  distinct  cells. 


Akene  (Buttercups). 
Utricle  (Pigweed). 
Caryopsis  (Grasses). 
Glans,  Acorn  (Oak). 
Samara,  Key  (Ash). 

Drupe  (Cherry). 
Tryma  (Walnut). 
Etaerio  (Raspberry). 


Berry  (Gooseberry). 
Hesperidium  (Orange). 
Pepo  (Squash). 
Pome  (Apple). 


*  Pericarps  dehiscent. 

t  13.  Dehiscence  circumscissile,  seeds  oo. 
t  Dehiscence  valvular  or  porous ; 
$  Simple,  or  1-carpelled, 

14.  Opening  by  the  ventral  suture. 

15.  Opening  by  both  sutures. 

16.  Legume  jointed. 

J  Compound  pericarps ; 

17.  Placentae  parietal  with  two  cells. 

Silique  short. 

18.  Placentae  parietal  only  when  1-celled. 

19.  Capsule  with   carpophore  and   elastic 

styles. 


Pyxis  (Henbane). 


Follicle  (Columbine). 
Legume  (Pea). 
Loment  (Desmodium). 

Silique  (Mustard). 

Silicle  (Shepherd's  Purse). 

Capsule  (Flax). 

Regma  (Geranium). 


§  2.   Confluent  Fruits  (formed  of  an  Inflorescence). 

*  20.  With  open  carpels  aggregated  into  a  cone.        Strobile  (Pine). 

*  21.  With  closed  carpels  aggregated  into  a  mass.      Sorosis  (Pineapple). 


54,  55.] 


FORMS    OF    THE    PERICARP. 


65 


151.  The  akene  is  a  small,   dry,  indehiscent  peri- 
carp, free  from  the  one  seed  which  it  contains,   and 
tipped    with    the    remains    of    the    style    (Buttercups, 
Lithospermum). 

The  double  akene  of  the  Umbelliferee,  supported  on  a  carpophore,  is  called 
cremocarp  (177).  The  akenes  of  the  Compositae,  usually  crowned  with  a  pap- 
pus, are  called  cypsda  (178). 

The  akenes  are  often  mistaken  for  seeds.  In  the  Labiatae  and  Borrage- 
worts  they  are  associated  in  fours  (141).  In  Greum,  Anemone,  etc.,  they  are 
collected  in  heads.  The  rich  pulp  of  the  Strawberry  consists  wholly  of  the 
overgrown  receptacle,  which  bears  the  dry  akenes  on  its  surface  (184). 

152.  The  utricle  is  a  small,  thin  pericarp,   fitting 
loosely  upon    its    one    seed,   and  often  opening  trans- 
versely to  discharge  it  (Pigweed,  Prince's  Feather), 


176 


178 


176,  Akenes  of  Anemone  thalidtroides.  177,  Cremocarp  of  Archangelica  officinalis,  its  halves  (mono- 
carps)  separated  and  suspended  on  the  carpophore.  178,  Cypsela  of  Thistle  with  its  plumous  pappus. 
1^9,  Utricle  of  Chenopodium  (Pigweed).  180,  Caryopsis  of  Wheat.  181,  Samara  of  Elm.  182,  Glans  of 
Beech.  183,  Drupe  of  Prunus.  184,  Fruit  of  Fragaria  Indica,  a  fleshy  torus  like  the  Strawberry. 

153.  Caryopsis,  the  grain  or  fruit  of  the  Grasses,  is 
a   thin,  dry,    1 -seeded   pericarp,    inseparable    from    the 
seed. 

154.  Samara;  dry,  1-seeded,  indehiscent,  furnished 
with  a  membranous  wing  or  wings  (Ash,  Elm,  Maple). 

155.  G-lans,    or   nut;  hard,    dry,    indehiscent,    com- 
monly 1-seeded   by   suppression    (§  145),  and   invested 


66 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[55,  56. 


with  a  persistent  involucre  called  a  cupule,  either  soli- 
tary (Acorn,  Hazelnut)  or  several  together  (Chestnut). 

156.  Drupe,  stone-fruit;   a   3-coated,    1-celled,  inde- 
hiscent  pericarp,  as  the  Cherry  and  Peach.    The   outer 
coat  (epidermis)  is  called  the  epicarp  ;  the  inner  is  the 
nucellus  or  endocarp,  hard  and  stony  ;  the  intervening 
pulp  or  fleshy  coat  is  the  sarcocarp  (adp^  flesh).    These 
coats  are  not  distinguishable  in  the  ovary. 

157.  Tryma,  a    2-coated  drupe;  the  epicarp   fibro- 
fleshy   (Butternut)    or   woody   (Hickory) ;    the  nucellus 
bony,  with  its  cell  often  deeply  2 -parted  (Cocoanut). 


191 


Fruits.— 186,  Etaerio  of  Rubus  strigosus  (Blackberry).  186,  Pepo ;  section  of  Cucumber.  187,  Berry 
Grape.  188,  Pome  ;  Cratsegus  (Haw).  189,  Pyxis*  of  Jeflersonia.  190,  Legume  of  Pea.  191,  Loment  of 
Tesmodium.  192,  Silique  of  Mustard.  193,  Silicic  of  Capsella. 

158.  Etcerio,  an  aggregate  fruit  consisting  of  numer- 
ous little  drupes  united  to  each  other  (Raspberry)  or  to 
the  fleshy  receptacle  (Blackberry). 

159.  Berry,  a  succulent,  thin-skinned  pericarp,  hold- 
ing the  seeds  loosely  imbedded  in  the  pulp  (Currant, 
Grape). 


55-67.]  FOEMS    OF    THE    PERICARP.  67 

160.  Hesperidium,  a  succulent,  many-carpelled  fruit; 
the  rind  thick,  leathery,  separable  from  the  pulpy  mass 
within  (Orange,  Lemon). 

161.  PepOj  an  indehiscent,  compound,   fleshy  fruit, 
with  a  hardened  rind  and  parietal  placentae  (Melon). 

162.  The  pome  is  an  indehiscent  pericarp,  formed 
of    the    permanent   calyx    and    fleshy  receptacle,    con- 
taining  several    cartilaginous   (Apple)   or  bony   (Haw) 
cells. 

163.  The  pyxis  is  a  many-seeded,  dry  fruit,  open- 
ing like  a  lid  by  a  circumscissile  dehiscence  (Plantain, 
Henbane,  Jeffersonia). 

164.  The  follicle  is  a  single  carpel,  1-celled,  many- 
seeded,  opening  at  the  ventral  suture  (Columbine,  Lark- 
spur, Silk-grass). 

*165.  The  legume,  or  pod,  is  a  single  carpel,  1-celled, 
usually  splitting  into  two  valves,  but  bearing  its  1 — oo 
seeds  along  the  ventral  suture  only,  in  one  row,  as  in 
the  Bean  and  all  the  Leguminosse.  It  is  sometimes 
curved  or  coiled  like  a  snail-shell  (Medicago).  The 
loment  is  a  jointed  pod,  separating  across  into  1-seeded 
portions  (Desmodium). 

166.  Silique.     A   pod,   linear,  2-carpelled,  2-valved, 
2 -celled  by  a  false   dissepiment  extended  between  the 
two  parietal  placentae.     To  this  false  dissepiment   on 
both  sides  of  both  edges  the  seeds  are  attached  (Mus- 
tard).     The  silicle  is  a    short  silique,  nearly  as  wide  as 
long  (Shepherd's  Purse).     The   silique   and  silicle  are 
the  peculiar  fruit  of  all  the  Cruciferae. 

167.  Capsule  (casket).    This  term  includes  all  other 
forms  of  dry,  dehiscent  fruits,  compound,  opening  by 
as  many  valves  as  there  are  carpels  (Iris),  or  by  twice 
as  many  (Chickweed),  or  by  pores  (Poppy). 


68 


STKUCTUKAL    BOTANY. 


[57. 


168.  The  Regma  is  a  kind  of  capsule  like  that  of 
the  Geranium,  whose  dehiscent  carpels  separate  elastic- 
ally,  but  still  remain  attached  to  the  carpophore. 

169.  Strobile,  or  Cone;  an  aggregate   fruit  consist- 
ing of  a  conical  or  oval  mass  of  imbricated  scales,  each 
an  open  carpel  ( $   flower),  bearing  seeds  on  its  inner 
side  at  base,  i.  e.,  axillary  seeds  (Pine  and  the  G-ymno- 
sperms  generally).    The  Cone  (syncarpium,  ovv,  togeth- 
er) of  the  Magnolia  tribe  is  a  mass  of  confluent,  closed 
pericarps  on  a  lengthened  torus  (Cucumber  Tree). 


196 


194,  Strobile  of  Pinus.    19f ,  The  Fig  (syconus).    196,  Sorosis  of  Mulberry.    197,  Hip  of  Rosa,  achenia 
nearly  inclosed  in  the  leathery  calyx  tube. 

170.  The  Fig  (syconium)  is  an  aggregate  fruit,  con- 
sisting of   numerous  seed-like   akenes   inclosed  within 
a    hollow,    fleshy    receptacle,   where    the   flowers  were 
attached. 

171.  Other  confluent  fruits  (Sorosis)  consist  of  the 
entire  inflorescence  developed   into  a  mass  of  united 
pericarps,  as  in  the  Mulberry,  Osage-orange,  Pineapple. 


58.1 


THE    SEED. 


198 


CHAPTER    XII. 

THE    SEED. 

172.  The  seed  is  the   perfected    ovule,  having   an 
embryo  formed  within,  which  is  the  rudiment  of  a  new 
plant,  similar  in  all  respects  to  the  original.    The  seed 
consists   of   a    nucellus   or  kernel,  invested   with    the 
integuments  or  coverings.     The  outer  covering  is  the 
testa,  the  inner  the  tegmen,  as 

in  the  ovule.  The  latter  is 
thin  and  delicate,  often  indis- 
tinguishable from  the  testa. 

173.  The    testa    is    either 
membranous     (papery),    coria- 
ceous   (leathery),    crustaceous 
(horny),  bony,  woody,  or  fleshy. 
Its  surface  is  generally  smooth, 
sometimes  beautifully  polished, 
as   in    Columbine,   Indian-shot 
(Canna),  and  often  highly  col- 
ored,  as   in   the    Bean ;    or    it 
may  be  dull  and  rough.     It  is 
sometimes  winged,   as  in   Ca- 

talpa,  and  sometimes  clothed  with  long  hairs,  as  in 
Silk-grass  (Asclepias).  Such  a  vesture  is  called  the 
Coma.  Cotton  is  the  coma  of  the  Cotton-seed. 

174.  The  coma  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  pappus  (§  104),  which  is 
a  modification  of  the  calyx,  appended  to  the  pericarp,  and  not  to  the  seed,  as 
in  the  akenes  of  the  Thistle,  Dandelion,  and  other  Composites.     Its  intention 
in  the  economy  of  the  plant  can  not  be  mistaken;  serving  like  the  pappus  to 
secure  the  dispersion  of  the  seed,  while  incidentally,  in  the  case  of  the  Cotton- 
seed, it  furnishes  clothing  and  employment  to  a  large  portion  of  the  human 
race. 


198,  Aril  of  Nutmeg  (mace).  199,  Seed  of 
Catalpa.  200,  Seed  of  Willow.  201,  Seed  of 
Cotton. 


70 


STKUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[58,  69. 


175.  The  aril  is  an  occasional  appendage,  partially  or  wholly  investing 
the  seed.     It  originates  after  fertilization,  at  or  near  the  hilum,  where  the 
seed  is  attached  to  its  stalk  (funiculus).    Pine  examples  are  seen  in  the  gashed 
covering  of  the  Nutmeg,  called  mace,  and  in  the  scarlet  coat  of  the  seed  of 
Staff -tree.    In  the   seed  of  Poly  gala,   etc.,  it  is  but  a  small  scale,  entire  or 
2-cleft,  called  caruncle. 

176.  The  position  of  the  seed  in  the  pericarp  is,  like  that  of  the  ovule, 
erect,  ascending,  pendulous,  etc.  (§  149).    Likewise,   in  respect  to  its  inversions,  it 
is  orthdtropous,  andtropous,  amphitropous,  and  campyldtrapom  (§  141),  terms  already 
denned.    The  anatropous  is  by  far  the  most  common  condition. 

177.  The    hilum  is  the  scar   or  mark  left  in  the 
testa  of  the  seed,  by  its  separation  from  the  funiculus. 
It   is  commonly  called  the  eye,   as  in  the  Bean.      In 
orth6tropous  and  campy!6tropous  seeds,  the  hilum  cor- 
responds with  the  chalaza  (§  140).    In  other  conditions 
it  does  not;    and  the  raphe  (§  141)  extends  between 
the  two  points,  as  in  the  ovules.      The  foramen  of  the 
ovule  is  closed  up  in  the  seed,  leaving  a  slight  mark — 

the  micropyle. 


212  213 

208  210  '  211 

202,  Seed  of  Water  Lily  (Nymphaea),  enlarged  section  ;  alb.,  albumen  ;  a,  the  embryo  contained,  in  the 
embryo-sac  ;  s,  tegmen  ;  p,  testa  ;  r,  raphe  ;  a",  aril  ;  m,  orifice  ;  /,  funiculus.  203,  Seed  of  Bean.  204, 
Same,  one  cotyledon  with  the  leafy  embryo.  205,  Seed  of  Apple.  206,  One  cotyledon  showing  the  raphe 
and  embryo.  207,  Fruit  of  Mirabilis  ;  embryo  coiled  into  a  ring.  208,  Onion  ;  embryo  coiled.  209,  Con- 
volvulus ;  leafy  embryo  folded.  210,  Embryo  of  Cuscuta.  211,  Typha.  212,  Ranunculus.  2i3,  Hop. 

178.  The  seed-kernel  may  consist  of  two  parts,  the 
embryo  and  albumen,  or  of  the  embryo  only.  In  the 
former  case  the  seeds  are  albuminous;  in  the  latter, 
exalbuminous ;  a  distinction  of  great  importance  in 
systematic  botany. 


59,  60.]  THE    SEED.  71 

179.  The   albumen   or   endosperm  is   a  starchy  or 
farinaceous  substance  accompanying   the  embryo   and 
serving  as  its  first  nourishment  in  germination.      Its 
qualities  are  wholesome  and  nutritious,  even  in  poison- 
ous   plants.      Its    quantity,    when    compared  with    the 
embryo,  varies    in    every    possible    degree ;    being    ex- 
cessive (Ranunculacese),  or  about  equal  (Violaceae),  or 
scanty  (Convolvulaceae),  or  none  at  all  (Leguminosae). 
In    texture    it    is    mealy    in    Wheat,    mucilaginous    in 
Mallows,   oily  in  Ricinus,  horny  in    Coffee,  ruminated 
in  Nutmeg  andv  Papaw,  ivory-like  in    the  Ivory-palm, 
fibrous  in  Cocoanut,  where  it  is  also  hollow,  inclosing 
the  milk. 

180.  The  embryo   is  an  organized  body,  the  rudi- 
ment  of  the   future  plant,  consisting  of  root  (radicle), 
stem-bud  (plumule),  and  leaves  (cotyledons).    But  these 
parts  are  sometimes  quite  indistinguishable  until  ger- 
mination, as  in  the   Orchis  tribe.      The  Radicle  is  the 
descending  part  of  the  embryo,  always  pointing  toward 
the  micropyle,  the  true  vertex  of  the   seed.      The  Plu- 
mule is  the  germ  of   the  ascending  axis,  the  terminal 
bud,  located  between  or  at  the  base  of  the  Cotyledons. 
These  are  the  seed-lobes,  the  bulky  farinaceous  part  of 
the  embryo,   destined   to  become  the   first  or   seminal 
leaves  of  the  young  plant.      The  nutritive   matter  de- 
posited  in   the    seed   for  the   early   sustenance    of  the 
germinating  embryo,  is  found  more  abundant   in  the 
cotyledons  in   proportion   as   there  is  less  of  it  in  the 
albumen  —  often  wholly  in  the  albumen  (Wheat),  again 
all  absorbed  in  the  bulky  cotyledons  (Squash). 

181.  The   number   of    the    cotyledons    is   variable; 
and  upon  this  circumstance   is  founded   the   most  im- 
portant   subdivision    of   the    Flowering   Plants.     THE 


72 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[60,  61. 


MONOCOTYLEDONS  are  plants  bearing  seeds  with  one 
cotyledon ;  or  if  two  are  present,  one  is  minute  or 
abortive.  Such  plants  are  also  called  ENDOGENS,  be- 
cause their  stems  do  not  grow  exogenously  (§  421). 
Such  are  the  Grasses,  the  Palms  and  Lilies,  whose 
leaves  are  mostly  constructed  with  parallel  veins. 


216 


217 


214,  Dicotyledonous  (Bean).  215,  Monocotyledonous  (Wheat).  216,  Polycotyledonous  (Pine).  217, 
Acotyledonous  (zoospore  of  one  of  the  Confervae).  (r,  r,  r,  radicle  ;  p,  p,  p,  plumule  ;  c,  c,  c,  cotyledon  ; 
a,  albumen.) 

182.  THE   DICOTYLEDONS    are   plants   bearing   seeds 
with  two  cotyledons.      These  are  also  called  EXOGENS, 
because  their   stems  grow  by  external  accretions ;   in- 
cluding   the    Bean    tribe,    Melon    tribe,    all    our   forest 
trees,  etc.      These    are   also   distinguished  at   a  glance 
by  the  structure  of  their  leaves,  which  are  net-veined 
(§    280).      More    than    two    cotyledons    are    found    in 
the    seeds    of    Pine    and    Fir  ;    while    the    Dodder    is 
almost  the  only  known  example  of  an  embryo  with  no 
cotyledon. 

183.  The  position  of  the  embryo,  whether  with  or 
without  albumen,  is  singularly  varied  and  interesting 
to  study.      It  may  be  straight,  as  in  Cat-tail  and  Vio- 
let, or  curved  in  various  degrees  (Moonseed  and  Pink), 
or  coiled  (Hop),  or  rolled  (Spicebush),  or  ~bent  angularly 
(Buckwheat),   or  folded   (Cruciferae).      In  the  last  case 


61,  62.]  THE    SEED.  73 

two  modes  are  to  be  specially  noticed.  1.  Incumbent, 
when  the  cotyledons  fold  over  so  as  to  bring  the  back 
of  one  against  the  radicle  (Shepherd's  Purse) ;  2.  Ac- 
cumbent,  when  the  edges  touch  the  radicle  (Arabis) . 

184.  A  few  plants,  as  the  Onion,  Orange,  and  Coniferse,  occasionally  have 
two  or  even  several  embryos  in  a  seed ;  while  all  the  Cryptogamia  or  flower- 
less  plants  have  no  embryo  at  all,  nor  even  seeds,  but  are  reproduced  from 
spores —  bodies  analogous  to  the  pollen-grains  of  flowering  plants  (217). 

185.  Vitality  of  the    seed. — After  the  embryo  has 
reached    its    growth  in   the    ripened    seed,  it  becomes 
suddenly  inactive,  yet  still  alive.      In  this  condition  it 
is,  in  fact,  a  living  plant,  safely  packed  and  sealed  up 
for  transportation.    This  suspended  vitality  of  the  seed 
may  endure  for   years,   or  even,   in   some   species,   for 
ages.      The  seeds  of  Maize  and  Rye  have  been  known 
to  grow  when  40  years  old;   Kidney-beans  when  100; 
the  Raspberry  after    1700   years    (Lindley).    Seeds   of 
Mountain  Potentilla  were   known   to   us  to   germinate 
after  a  slumber  of  60   years.      On  the  other  hand,  the 
seeds  of  some  species  are  short-lived,  retaining  vitality 
hardly  a  year  (Coffee,  Magnolia). 

186.  The  dispersion  of  seeds  over  wide,  and  often  to  distant  regions,  is 
effected  by  special  agencies,  in  which  the  highest  Intelligence  and  Wisdom 
are  clearly  seen.    Some  seeds  made  buoyant  by  means  of  the  coma  or  pappus, 
already  mentioned,  are  wafted  afar  by  the  winds,  beyond  rivers,  lakes,  and 
seas ;    as  the  Thistle  and  Dandelion.     Other  seeds  have  wings  for  the  same 
purpose.     Others  are  provided  with  hooks  or  barbs,  by  which  they  lay  hold  of 
men  and  animals,  and  are  thus,  by  unwilling  agents,  scattered  far  and  wide 
(Burr-seed,  Tick-seed).     Again :    some  seeds,  destitute  of  aU  such  appendages, 
are  thrown  to  a  distance  by  the   sudden  coiling  of  the  elastic  carpels  (Touch- 
me-not).     The  Squirting-cucumber  becomes  distended  with  water  by  absorp- 
tion, and  at  length,  when  ripe,  bursts  an  aperture  at  the  base  by  separating 
from  the  stem,  and  projects  the  mingled  seeds  and  water  with  amazing  force. 

187.  Rivers,    streams,   and  ocean   currents,    are  agents   for  transporting 
seeds  from  country  to  country.     Thus  the  Cocoa,  and  the  Cashew-nut,  and 
the  seeds  of  Mahogany,  have  been  known  to  perform  long  voyages  without 
injury  to  their  vitality.     Squirrels  laying  up  their  winter  stores  in  the  earth ; 
birds  migrating  from  clime  to  clime  and  from  island  to  island,  in  like  manner 
conspire  to  effect  the  same  important  end. 


74 


STKUCTUKAL    BOTANY. 


[62,  63. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

GEKMINATION. 

188.  The  recommencement  of  growth  in  the  seed 
is  called  germination.  It  is  the  awakening  of  the 
embryo  from  its  torpor,  and  the  beginning  of  develop- 
ment in  its  parts  already  formed,  so  as  to  become  a 
plant  like  its  parent. 


218 


Germination  of  the  B-xschnut.—ZlS,  Cross-section,  showing  the  folded  cotyledons.  219,  The  radicle 
only.  220,  The  ascending  axis,  above  c,  appears,  221,  The  cotyledons  expand  into  the  primordial 
leaves.  222,  The  first  true  leaves. 

189.  All  the  stages    of  this  interesting  process  may  be  conveniently  ob- 
served, at  any  season,  by  an  experiment.     Let  a  few  seeds,  as  of  flax,  cotton, 
or  wheat,   be    enveloped   in  a  lock  of  cotton  resting  upon  water  in  a  bulb- 
glass,  and  kept  constantly  at  a  proper  temperature.    Or,  in  Spring,  the  garden- 
soil  will  give  us  examples  of  all  kinds  everywhere. 

190.  That  the   seed  may  begin   to  grow,  or  germi- 
nate, it  is  first  planted;  or,  at  least,  placed  in  contact 
with  warm,  moist  soil.     Concerning  the  proper  depth 


63.] 


GERMINATION. 


75 


of  the  planted  seed,  agriculturists  are  not  agreed  ;   but 

nature  seems   to  indicate   that  no   covering  is  needed 

beyond  what   will   secure    the   requisite  moisture  and 

shade.    Thus  situated,  the  integuments  gradually  ab- 

sorb water,  soften,  and  expand.    The  insoluble,  starchy 

matter  deposited  in  the  cotyledons,  or  in  the  albumen, 

or  in  both,  undergoes  a  certain  chemical  change,  be- 

coming sweet  and  soluble,  capa- 

ble of   affording  nourishment  to 

the    embryo    now    beginning  to 

dilate    and     develop     its    parts. 

First  (in  the  winged  seed  of  the 

Maple,  scattered  everywhere)  the 

radicle   is  seen  protruding  from 

the   micropyle,   or   the    bursting 

coverings.      A    section     of     this 

seed  would  now  show  the  folded 

embryo,    impatient    of    confine- 

ment (225). 

191.  Soon   after,  the  radicle 
has  extended  ;  and,  pale  in  color, 
has    hidden   itself    in   the   dark, 

damp  earth.       NOW  the  COtyledonS. 

unfolding  and  gradually  freed 
from  the  seed-coats,  display  themselves  at  length  as  a 
pair  of  green  leaves.  Lastly,  the  plumule  appears  in  open 
air,  a  green  bud,  already  showing  a  lengthening  base, 
its  first  internode,  and  soon  a  pair  of  regular  leaves, 
lobed  as  all  Maple-leaves.  The  embryo  is  now  an  em- 
bryo no  longer,  but  a  growing  plant,  descending  by  its 
lower  axis,  ascending  and  expanding  by  its  upper. 

192.  With  equal  advantage  we  may  watch  the  ger- 
mination   of    the    Beech,    represented    in    the    figures 


Germination  of  Wheat.  —  o,  the  grain, 
containing  the  cotyledon  ;  c,  plumule  ; 
r,  radicle  ;  «,  rootlets  (adventitious). 


76 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[63,  64. 


above;  or  of  the  Oak,  as  displayed  in  figures  1,  2,  3, 
4 ;  or  the  Pea,  or  Squash,  and  other  Dicotyledons ;  and 
the  chief  difference  observed  among  them  will  be  in 
the  disposal  of  the  cotyledons.  In  general,  these  arise 
with  the  ascending  axis,  as  in  Maple  and  Bean,  and 
act  as  the  first  pair  of  leaves.  But  sometimes,  when 
they  are  very  thick,  as  in  Pea,  Buckeye,  and  Oak,  they 
never  escape  the  seed-coats,  but  remain  and  perish  at 
the  collum  (§  199),  neither  ascending  nor  descending. 


£35 


Germination  of  the  Maple.— "22,5,  Samara  ;  section  showing  the  folded  cotyledons  at  c.    226-230,  Pro- 
gressive stages. 

193.  The  germination  of  MONOCOTYLEDONS,  as   seen 
in  Indian  Corn,  Wheat,  and  Tulip,  is  in  this  wise.    The 
cotyledon  is  not  disengaged  from  the  seed,  but  remains 
stationary  with  it.    The  radicle   (r)  protrudes  slightly, 
and   one   or   more  rootlets  (s)  break  out  from  it  and 
descend.    The  plumule  (c)  shoots  at  first  parallel  with 
the   cotyledon   along  the   face    of   the   seed,  but  soon 
ascends,  pushing  out  leaf  from  within  leaf. 

194.  The  conditions  requisite  for  germination  are 


64,  65.] 


GERMINATION 


77 


moisture,  air,  and  warmth.  Moisture  is  necessary  for 
softening  the  integuments,  dissolving  the  nutritive 
matter,  and  facilitating  its  circulation.  This  is  sup- 
plied in  the  rain  and  dew.  Air,  or  rather  its  oxygen, 
is  required  for  the  con- 
version of  the  starch  into 
sugar  —  a  process  always 
depending  upon  oxidation. 
The  oxygen  absorbed 
unites  with  a  portion  of 
the  carbon  of  the  starch, 
producing  heat,  evolving 
carbon  dioxide,  and  thus 
converting  the  remainder 
into  grape-sugar,  soluble 
and  nutritive. 

195.  Warmth  is  a  req- 
uisite condition  of  all  vital 
action,  as  well  in  the 
sprouting  of  a  seed  as  in 
the  hatching  of  an  egg. 

The  proper  degree  of  temperature  for  our  own  climate 
may  be  stated  at  60°  to  90°.  Extremes  of  heat  and 
of  cold  are  not,  however,  fatal  to  all  germination.  In 
one  of  the  Geysers  of  Iceland,  which  was  hot  enough 
to  boil  an  egg  in  four  minutes,  a  species  of  Chara  was 
found  in  a  growing  and  fruitful  state.  The  hot  springs 
and  pools  of  San  Bernardino,  California,  at  the  con- 
stant heat  of  190°,  have  several  species  of  plants  grow- 
ing within  their  waters.  Many  species  also  arise  and 
flower  in  the  snows  of  Mt.  Hood,  along  their  lower 
borders.  Darkness  is  favorable  to  germination,  as 
proved  by  experiment,  but  not  an  indispensable  condi- 


231,  232,  Germination  of  Indian  Corn. 


78 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[65,  66. 


tion.  Hence,  while  the  seed  should  be  covered,  for  the 
sake  of  the  moisture  and  shade,  the  covering  should 
be  thin  and  light,  for  the  sake  of  a  free  access  to  air. 

196.  The  cause  of  the  downward  tendency  of  the  root  is  a  theme  of  much 
discussion.  Some  have  referred  it  to  the  principle  of  gravitation ;  others  to 
its  supposed  aversion  to  light.  But  it  is  a  simple  and  satisfactory  explanation 
that  its  growth  or  cell-development  takes  place  most  readily  on  the  moist  side 
of  its  growing-point,  and  consequently  in  a  downward  direction,  so  long  as  the 
soil  in  contact  with  its  lower  surface  is  more  moist  than  that  above.  Hence, 
also,  the  well-known  tendency  of  roots  toward  springs  and  water-courses. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

THE    ROOT,    OR    DESCENDING    AXIS. 

197.   The   Root   is  the  basis  of  the  plant,  and  the 
principal   organ  of    nutrition.    It    originates    with   the 


£33 


233,  White  Clover— an  axial  root  (with  minute  tubers).    234,  Buttercups— fibrous  roots,  inaxial.    235,  Eri- 

genia — root  tuberous. 

radicle  of  the  seed,  the  tendency  of  its  growth  is  down- 
ward, and   it  is   generally  immersed   in   the  soil.      Its 


66,  67.] 


THE    ROOT. 


79 


office  is  twofold ;  viz.,  to  support  the  plant  in  its  posi- 
tion, and  to  imbibe  from  the  soil  the  food  necessary  to 
the  growth  of  the  plant. 

198.  The  leading  propensity  of  the  root  is  to  divide 
itself;  and   its   only  normal  appendages  are  branches, 
branchlets,  fibers,  and  fibrillse,  which  are  multiplied  to 
an  indefinite   extent,  corresponding  with  the  multipli- 
cation   of   the    leaves,    twigs,  etc., 

above.  This  at  once  insures  a  firm 
hold  upon  the  earth,  and  brings  a 
large  absorbing  surface  in  contact 
with  the  moist  soil. 

199.  The   summit  of  the  root, 
or  that  place  where  the  root  meets 
the  stem,  is  called  the  collum ;  the 
remote,  opposite  extremities  of  the 
fine  rootlets,  or  fibers,  are  covered 
by  dry,  protective  cells,  forming  a 
root-cap ;  the  sides  of  these  fibers 
are    chiefly    active    in     absorbing 
liquid  nourishment,  and  are  mostly 
covered    by    root-hairs,    which    in- 
crease their  absorbing  surface.     The   hairs  arise  from 
the   tender   epidermis   or    skin,  and  perish  when  that 
thickens  into  bark.      They  are    developed    and  perish 
annually  with    the    leaves,  whose    servants    they    are. 
Few  of  them  remain  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf.      This 
fact  plainly  indicates  that  the  proper  time  for  trans- 
planting trees  or  shrubs  is   the   late  Autumn,  Winter, 
or  early  Spring,  when  there  are  but  few  tender  fibrillae 
to  be  injured. 

200.  Two  modes  of  root-development  are  definitely 
distinguished.     First,  the    AXIAL  MODE    is   that  where 


236,  Extremity  of  a  rootlet  of  Ma- 
e,  with  its  hairs  and  root  -cap  (a) 


80  STEUCTUKAL    BOTANY.  [67,  68. 

•the  primary,  simple  radicle,  in  growing,  extends  itself 
downward  in  a  main  body  more  or  less  branched, 
continuous  with  the  stem,  and  forms  the  permanent 
root  of  the  plant.  Such  is  the  case  with  the  Maple, 
Mustard,  Beet,  and  most  of  the  Dicotyledonous  Plants 
(§  183). 

201.  Secondly,    the    DIFFUSE    development    is    that 
where    the     primary    radicle    proves    abortive,    never 
developing    into    an    axial    root  ;    but,    growing    lat- 
erally only,   it   sends    out  little   shoots  from  its  sides, 
which    grow    into    long,    slender    roots,     nearly    equal 
in  value,   none    of    them    continuous    with    the    stem. 
Of    this    nature    are    the    roots    of    all    the     Grasses, 
the  Lilies,  and  the  Monocotyledons  generally,   and  of 
the   Cryptogamia.     Plants  raised  from  layers,  cuttings, 
tubers,  and  slips  are  necessarily  destitute  of  the  axial 
root. 

202.  The  various  forms  of  the  root  are  naturally 
and  conveniently  referred  to  these  two  modes  of  devel- 
opment.    The  principal  axial  forms   are  the   ramous, 
fusiform,   napiform,    and   conical.     To   all  these  forms 
the  general  name  tap-root  is  applied.      The  ramous  is 
the  woody   tap-root   of   most  trees   and   shrubs,  where 
the  main  root  branches  extensively,  and  is  finally  dis- 
solved and  lost  in  multiplied  ramifications. 

203.  Tuberous    tap-roots.  —  In    herbaceous    plants 
the  tap-root  often  becomes  thick  and  fleshy,  with  com- 
paratively few  branches.      This  tendency  is   peculiarly 
marked  in  biennials  (§  41),  where  the  root  serves  as  a 
reservoir  of  the  superabundant  food  which   the  plant 
accumulates  during   its   first  year's  growth,  and  keeps 
in  store  against  the  exhausting  process  of  fruit-bearing 
in  its  second    year.      Such  is  the  Fusiform    (spindle- 


68,  69.]  THE    EOOT.  81 

shaped)  root  —  thick,  succulent,  tapering  downward, 
and  also  for  a  short  space  upward.  Beet,  Radish,  and 
Ginseng  are  examples.  The  Conical  root  tapers  all 
the  way  from  the  collum  downward  (Carrot).  The 
Napiform  (turnip-shaped)  swells  out  in  its  upper  part 
so  that  its  breadth  equals  or  exceeds  its  length,  as  in 
Erigenia  (233)  and  Turnip  (239). 


237,  Maple — an  axial,  ramous  root.    238,  Parsnip — a  fusiform  root.    239,  Turnip — a  napiform  root.    240, 
Corallorhiza— a  coralline  root. 


204.  The  forms  of  diffuse  roots  are  fibrous,  fibro- 
tuberous,  tubercular,  coralline,  nodulous,  and  monili- 
form.  The  fibrous  root  consists  of  numerous  thread- 
like divisions,  sent  off  directly  from  the  base  of  the 
stem,  with  no  main  or  tap-root.  Such  are  the  roots  of 
most  Grasses,  which  multiply  their  fibers  excessively 
in  light  sandy  soils.  Fibro-tuberous  roots  (or  fascicu- 
late) are  so  called  when  some  of  the  fibers  are  thick 
and  fleshy,  as  in  the  Asphodel,  Crowfoot,  Paeony, 
Orchis,  and  Dahlia.  When  the  fiber  is  enlarged  in 
certain  parts  only,  it  is  nodulous;  and  when  the  en- 
largements occur  at  regular  intervals,  it  is  moniliform 


82 


STRUCTUEAL  BOTANY. 


[69,  70. 

and 


(necklace-like).    When  it  bears  little  tubers  here 
there,  as  in  Squirrel-corn,  it  is  tubercular. 

205.  Deposits  of  starch,  or  farinaceous  matter,  in 
all  these  cases,  constitute  the  thickening  substance  of 
the  root,  stored  up  for  the  future  use  of  the  plant. 


214 


241,  Paeony  —  fibro-tuberous  roots.    242,    Ginseng  —  fusiform  root.    243,  Pelargonium  triste  —  moniliform 
root.    244,  Spirea  filipendula— nodulous  root.    245,  A  creeping  stem,  with  adventitious  roots. 

206.  Adventitious    roots   are   such,   as   originate   in   some  part   of   the 
ascending  axis  — stem   or   branches— whether    above    or  below   the   ground. 
They  are  so  called  because   their  origin  is  indeterminate,  both  in  place  and 
time.    Several  special  forms  should  be  noticed;  as  the  cirrhous  roots  of  certain 
climbing  vines  (European  Ivy,  Poison  Ivy,  Trumpet-creeper)  put  forth  in  great 
numbers  from  the  stem,  serving  for  its   mechanical   support  and  no   other 
known  use.     Again :  the  Fulcra  of  certain  Monocotyledonous  plants  originate 
high  up  the  stem,  and  descending  obliquely  enter  the  ground.     The  Indian 
Corn  frequently  puts  forth  such  roots  from  its  lower  joints,  and  thereby  be- 
comes strongly  braced.     The   Screw  Pine   (Pandanus)  of  the   conservatories 
puts  forth  fulcra  often  several  feet  in  length. 

207.  The  Banian  Tree  (Mcus  Indicus)  drops  "  adventitious "  roots  from 
its  extended  branches,  which,  reaching  and  entering  the  ground,  grow  to  sup- 
porting cohimns,  like  secondary  trunks.    Thus  a  single  tree  becomes  at  length 
a  grove  capable  of  sheltering  an  army. 

208.  Epiphytes  (err/,  upon,  <t>vr6v,  a  plant),  a  class  of 
plants,    called    also    air-plants,    have    roots    which    are 
merely  mechanical,   serving   to   fix   such  plants  firmly 
upon    other  plants   or  trees,  while    they   derive    their 


70.] 


THE    BOOT. 


88 


nourishment    wholly    from    the    air.      The    Long-moss 
(Tillandsia)  and  Conopseum  are  examples. 


247,  Old  Oak  trunk  with  horizontal  branch  bearing  epiphytes  and  para- 
sites, a,  A  fern  (Polypodium  incanum).  b,  Epidendrum  conopseum.  oc, 
Long-moss  (Tillandsia).  d,  Mistletoe  (Viscum).  e,  Lichen. 

209.  Parasites  —  Three  classes.  Very 
different  in  nature  are  the  roots  of 
those  plants  called  parasites,  which  feed 
upon  the  juices  of  other  plants  or  trees. 
Such  roots  penetrate  the  bark  of  the  nurse-plant  to 
the  cambium  layer  beneath,  and  appropriate  the  stolen 
juices  to  their  own  growth  ;  as  the  Dodder  and  Mistle- 
toe. Other  parasites,  although  standing  in  the  soil,  are 
fixed  upon  foreign  roots,  and  thence  derive  either  their 
entire  sustenance,  as  the  Beech-drops  and  other  leaf- 
less, colorless  plants,  or  a  part  of  their  sustenance,  as 
the  Cow-wheat  (Melampyrum)  and  Gerardia. 

210.  Subterranean  stems. —As  there  are  aerial  roots,  so  there  are  sub- 
terranean stems.  These  are  frequently  mistaken  for  roots,  but  may  be  known 
by  their  habitually  and  regularly  producing  buds.  Of  this  nature  are  the 
tubers  of  the  Irish  Potato,  the  rootstock  of  the  Sweet-flag,  the  bulb  of  the 
Tulip.  But  even  the  true  root  may  sometimes  develop  buds  —  accidentally  as 
it  were  — in  consequence  of  some  injury  to  the  upper  axis,  or  some  other 
unnatural  condition. 


STEUCTUBAL    BOTANY. 


[71. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

THE    STEM,   OK    ASCENDING    AXIS. 

211.  The  general  idea  of  the  Axis  is  this:  the  cen- 
tral substantial  portion  of  the  plant,  bearing  the 
appendages,  viz.,  roots  below,  and  the  leaf-organs 
above.  The  Ascending  Axis  is  that  which  originates 
with  the  plumule,  tends  upward  in  its  growth,  and 
expands  itself  to  the  influence  of  the  air  and  the  light. 


248,  Procumbent  stem— Chiogenes  hispidula. 


212.  Although  the  first  direction  of  the  stem's 
growth  is  vertical  in  all  plants,  there  are  many  in 
which  this  direction  does  not  continue,  but  changes 
into  the  oblique  or  horizontal,  either  just  above  the 


249,  Decumbent  stem— Anagallis  arvensis. 


surface  of  the  ground,  or  just  beneath  it.  If  the  stem 
continues  to  arise  in  the  original  direction,  as  it  most 
commonly  does,  it  is  said  to  be  erect.  If  it  grow 
along  the  ground  without  rooting,  it  is  said  to  be  pro- 


71,  72.]  THE    STEM.  85 

cumbentj  prostrate,  trailing.  If  it  recline  upon  the 
ground  after  having  at  the  base  arisen  somewhat 
above  it,  it  is  decumbent.  If  it  arise  obliquely  from  a 
prostrate  base,  it  is  said  to  be  assurgent ;  and  if  it 
continue  buried  beneath  the  soil,  it  is  subterranean. 
Such  stems,  although  buried  like  roots,  may  readily  be 
known  by  their  buds,  as  already  explained  (§  210). 

213.  Stems    are    either    simple    or   branched.     The 
simple  stem  is  produced  by  the  unfolding  of  the  pri- 
mary bud   (the  plumule)   in   the  direction  of  its  point 
alone.    As  this  bud  is  developed  below  into  the  length- 
ening stem,  it  is  continually  reproduced  at  its  summit, 
and  so  is  always  borne  at  the  termination  of  the  stem. 
Hence  the  axis  is  always  terminated  by  a  bud. 

214.  -The  Branching  Stem,  which  is  by  far  the  most 
common,  is  produced  by  the  development  of  both  ter- 
minal and  axillary  buds.     The  axis  produces  a  bud  in 
the  axil  of  its  every  leaf ;  that  is,  at  a  point  just  above 
the   origin  of  the  leaf-stalk.     These   buds   remain   in- 
active in  the  case  of  the  simple  stem,  as  the  Mullein; 
but  jnore  generally  are   developed  into  leafy  subdivis- 
ions of  the  axis,  and  the  stem  thus  becomes  branched. 
A  Branch  is,  therefore,  a  division  of  the  axis  produced 
by  the  development  of  an  axillary  bud.     It  repeats  the 
internal  structure   of  the   stem,  but  is   sometimes  pe- 
culiar  in  being  bilaterally   symmetrical  or  having  its 
upper  and  under  surfaces  unlike. 

215.  The  Arrangement  of   the   Branches  upon  the 
stem,  depends,  therefore,  upon  the  arrangement  of  the 
leaves ;   which  will  be  more  particularly  noticed  here- 
after.    This  arrangement  is  beautifully  regular,  accord- 
ing to  established  laws.    In  this  place  we  briefly  notice 
three   general  modes.    .  The  Alternate  arrangement  is 


86  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [72,73. 

where  but  one  branch  arises  from  each  joint  (node)  on 
different  sides  of  the  stem,  as  in  the  Elm.  The  Oppo- 
site is  where  two  branches  stand  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  same  node,  as  in  Maple.  The  Verticillate  is  where 
three  or  more  branches,  equidistant,  encircle  the  stem 
at  each  node,  as  in  the  Pine.  Dichotomous  branching 
is  where  a  main  or  secondary  axis  forks  into  two 
equal  divisions,  as  often  occurs  in  Flowerless  Plants. 

216.  Some  plants  produce  adventitious  roots  which 
may  become  independent.  Nurserymen  in  this  way 
propagate  scions,  suckers,  stolons,  offsets,  slips,  layers, 
cuttings,  and  runners.  The  Sucker  is  a  branch  issuing 
from  some  underground  portion  of  the  plant,  leaf- 
bearing  above  and  sending  out  roots  from  its  own 
base,  becoming  finally  a  separate,  independent  plant. 
The  Rose  and  Raspberry  are  thus  multiplied. 


250,  a.  Slip  (Gooseberry)  taking  root.  6,  Cutting  (Grape)  taking  root,  c,  Stolons  or  layers  artificially 
arranged  for  propagation,  d,  A  mode  of  dwarfing  ;  the  vessel,  »,  is  filled  with  soil,  e,  Scions  ;  process  of 
grafting.  /,  A  sucker. 

217.  The  Stolon,  or  Layer,  is  a  branch  issuing  from 
some  above-ground  portion  of  the  stem,  and  afterward 
declining  to  the  ground,  taking  root  at  or  near  its  ex- 
tremity, sending  up  new  shoots,  and  becoming  a  new 


•73,  74.] 


THE    STEM. 


87 


plant.  The  Hobble-bush  and  Black-raspberry  do  this 
naturally,  and  gardeners  imitate  the  process  in  many 
plants. 

218.  The   Scion   is   any  healthy  twig   or  branchlet 
bearing  one  or   more  buds,  used  by  the  gardeners  in 
the   common   process   of  grafting.     Slips  and  cuttings 
are  fragments  of  ordinary  branches  or  stems,  consist- 
ing of  young  wood  bearing  one  or  more  buds.     These 
strike  root  when  planted  in  the  ground.    So  the  Grape- 
vine  and   Hop.    The    Offset  is  merely  a  scion  severed 
from  the  parent  and  set  in  the  ground  to  strike  root. 

219.  The    Runner  is    a  prostrate,  filiform  branch, 
issuing  from   certain  short-stemmed   herbs,  extending 
itself  along  the  surface  of  the  ground,  striking  root  at 
its  end  without  being  buried.    Thence  leaves  arise,  and 
a  new  plant,  which  in  turn  sends  out  new  runners,  as 
in  the  Strawberry. 


251,  A  Strawberry  plant  (Fragarfe  vesca)  sending  out  a  runner. 

220.  The  Node,  or  joint  of  the  stem,  marks  a  defi- 
nite point  of  a  peculiar  organization,  where  the  leaf 
with  its  axillary  bud  arises.  The  nodes  occur  at  regu- 
lar intervals,  and  the  spaces  between  them  are  termed 
INTERNODES.  They  provide  for  the  symmetrical  arrange- 
ment of  the  leaves  and  branches  of  the  stem.  In  the 


88  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [73-75. 

root  no  such  provision  is  made,  and  the  branches  have 
a  less  definite  arrangement.  Now  the  growth  of  the 
stem  consists  in  the  development  of  the  internodes. 
In  the  bud,  the  nodes  are  closely  crowded  together, 
with  no  perceptible  internodes  ;  thus  bringing  the  rudi- 
mentary leaves  in  close  contact  with  each  other.  But 
in  the  stem,  which  is  afterward  evolved  from  that  bud, 
we  see  full-grown  leaves  separated  by  considerable 
spaces.  That  is,  while  leaves  are  developed  from  the 
rudiments,  internodes  are  pushed  out  from  the  grow- 
ing point. 

221.  There  are,  however,  many  species  of  plants, 
especially  of  herbs,  in  which  the  axis  of  the  primary 
bud  does  not  develop  into  internodes  at  all,  or  but  par- 
tially in  various  degrees.  See  the  axis  of  Trillium, 
Onion,  and  Bloodroot.  Such  stems  seldom  appear 
above-ground.  They  are  subterranean.  This  fact 
makes  a  wide  difference  in  the  forms  of  stems,  and  nat- 
urally separates  them  into  two  great  divisions  —  viz., 
the  Leaf-bearing  Stems  and  the  Scaled-bearing  Stems. 


CHAPTER    XYI. 

FORMS    OF    THE    LEAF-BEARING    STEMS. 

222.  The  leaf-bearing  stems  are  those  forms  which, 
with  internodes  fully  developed,  rise  into  the  air 
crowned  with  leaves.  The  principal  forms  are  the 
caulis,  culm,  trunk,  caudex,  and  vine.  They  are  either 
herbaceous  or  woody.  Herbaceous  stems  bear  fruit  but 
one  season  and  then  perish,  at  least  down  to  the  root, 
scarcely  becoming  woody ;  as  seen  in  Mustard,  Radish, 


75,  76.]              FORMS    OF    THE    LEAF-BEARING    STEMS.  89 

and  Grasses.      But  woody  stems  survive    the  Winter, 

and  often  become  firm  and  solid  in  substance  in  after 
years ;   as  do  all  the  forest  trees. 


254 


252,  Scale-stem  (Dicentra  cucullaria).     253,  A  flower  of  the  same.    254,  A  flower  of  D.  Canadensis. 
255,  Leaf-stem  (Chimaphila  maculata). 

223.  CAULIS    is    a    term    generally    applied    to    the 
annual  leafy  stems  of  herbaceous  plants.     "Haulm "is 
a  term  used  in  England  with  the  same  signification. 
Caulescent  and  acaulescent  are  convenient  terms,  the 
former  denoting   the  presence,  and  the  latter  the  ab- 
sence of  the  caulis  or  aerial  stem. 

224.  THE  CULM  is  the  stem  of  the  Grasses  and  the 
Sedges,  generally  jointed,  often  hollow,  rarely  becom- 
ing woody;   as  in  Cane  and  Bamboo. 

225.  THE  TRUNK  is  the  name  of  the  peculiar  stems 
of  arborescent  plants.    It  is  the  central  column  or  axis 


90 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[76,  77. 


which  supports  their  branching  tops  and  withstands 
the  assaults  of  the  wind  by  means  of  the  great  firm- 
ness and  strength  of  the  woody  or  ligneous  tissue  with 
which  it  abounds.  The  trunk  is  usually  seen  simple 
and  columnar  below,  for  a  certain  space,  then  variously 
dividing  itself  into  branches.  Here  it  is  cylindrical, 
straight,  and  erect,  as  in  the  Forest  Pine ;  prismatic 
often,  as  in  the  Gum-tree ;  gnarled  and  curved,  as  in 
the  Oak ;  or  inclined  far  over  its  base,  as  in  the  Syca- 
more. 


S  B  E 

256,  5,  Spruce.    B,  Beech.     E,  Elm  ;  to  illustrate  excurrent  and  deliquescent  axis. 

226.  In  dividing  itself  into  branches,  we  observe 
two  general  modes,  with  their  numerous  variations, 
strikingly  characterizing  the  tree  forms.  In  the  one, 
named  by  Lindley  the  EXCURRENT,  the  trunk,  from  the 
superior  vigor  of  its  terminal  bud,  takes  precedence  of 


77.]  FORMS    OF    THE    LEAF-BEARING    STEMS.  91 

the  branches,  and  runs  through  to  the  summit,  as  in 
the  Beech,  Birch,  Oak,  and  especially  in  the  -Spruce  — 
trees  with  oval  or  pyramidal  forms.  But  in  the  other, 
the  DELIQUESCENT  AXIS,  as  seen  in  the  Elm  and  Apple- 
tree,  the  trunk  suddenly  divides  into  several  subequal 
branches,  which  thence  depart  with  different  degrees 
of  divergency,  giving  the  urn  form  to  the  Elm,  the 
rounded  form  to  the  Apple-tree,  the  depressed  form  to 
the  Sloe-tree  (Viburnum)  and  Dogwood. 

227.  CAUDEX  is  a  term  now  applied  to  the  peculiar  trunk  of  the  Palms 
and  Tree-ferns,  simple,  branchless  columns,  or  rarely  dividing  in  advanced 
age.     It  is  produced  by  the  growth  of  the  terminal  bud  alone,  and  its  sides 
are  marked  by  the  scars  of  the  fallen  leaf -stalks  of  former  years,  or  are  yet 
covered  by  their  persistent  bases.     Tln.^  stock  or  caudex  of  the  cactus  tribe  is 
extraordinary  in  form  and  substance.    It  is  often  jointed,  prismatic,  branched, 
always  greenish,  fleshy,  and  full  of  a  watery  juice.     Instead  of  leaves,  its  lat- 
eral buds   develop   spines   only,  the  stem  itself  performing  the  functions  of 
leaves.    These  plants  abound  in  the  warm  regions  of  tropical  America,  and 
afford  a  cooling   acid  beverage  to  the  thirsty  traveler  when  springs  dry  up 
under  the  torrid  sun. 

228.  THE  VINE  is  either  herbaceous  or  woody.    It  is 
a  stem  too  slender  and  weak  to  stand  erect,  but  trails 
along  the   ground,  or  any  convenient   support.     Some- 
times,   by   means   of   special   organs   for  this   purpose, 
called  tendrils,  it  ascends  trees  and   other  objects  to  a 
great  height ;   as  the   Grape,   Gourd,  and   other  climb- 
ing vines. 

229.  The  twining  vine  having  also  a  length  greatly  disproportioned  to  its 
diameter,  supports  itself  on  other  plants  or  objects  by  entwining  itself  around 
them,  being  destitute  of  tendrils.    Thus  the  Hop  ascends  into  the  air  by  for- 
eign aid,  and  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  direction  of  its  winding  is  always 
the  same,  viz.,  with  the  sun,  from  left  to  right;  nor  can  any  artificial  training 
induce  it  to  reverse  its  course.    This  is  a  general  law  among  twining  stems. 
Every  individual  plant  of  the  same  species  revolves  in  the  same  direction, 
although  opposite  directions   may   characterize   different   species.     Thus   the 
Morning-Q-lory  revolves  always  against  the  sun, 


92  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [78. 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

FORMS    OF    SCALE-BEARING    STEMS. 

230.  The  Scale-bearing  stems  are  those  forms 
which,  with  internodes  partially  or  not  at  all  developed, 
and  generally  clothed  with  scales  for  leaves,  scarcely 
emerge  from  the  soil.  They  are  the  creeper  and  rhi- 
zoma  (developed),  the  crown,  tuber,  corm,  and  bulb 
(undeveloped).  Their  forms  are  singular,  often  dis- 
torted in  consequence  of  their  underground  growth  and 
the  unequal  development  of  the  internodes.  They 
commonly  belong  to  perennial  herbs,  and  the  principal 
forms  are  described  as  follows ;  but  intermediate  con- 
necting forms  are  very  numerous,  and  often  perplexing. 


257,  Creeper  of  "  Nimble  Will  "  or  Witch-grass  ;  a,  Bud  ;  bb,  bases  of  culms. 

231.  THE  CREEPER  is  either  subaerial  or  subterra- 
nean. In  the  former  case,  it  is  prostrate,  running  and 
rooting  at  every  joint,  and  hardly  distinguishable  other- 
wise from  leafy  stems  ;  as  the  Twin-flower,  the  Par- 
tridge-berry. In  the  latter  case,  it  is  more  commonly 
clothed  with  scales,  often  branching  extensively,  root- 
ing at  the  nodes,  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  extend- 


78,79.]  FORMS    OF    SCALE-BEARING    STEMS.  93 

ing  horizontally  in  all  directions  beneath  the  soil, 
annually  sending  up  from  its  terminal  buds  erect  stems 
into  the  air.  The  Witch-grass  is  an  example.  Such 
plants  are  a  sore  evil  to  the  garden.  They  can  have 
no  better  cultivation  than  to  be  torn  and  cut  to  pieces 
by  the  spade  of  the  angry  gardener,  since  they  are 
thus  multiplied  as  many  times  as  there  are  fragments. 

232.  Repent  stems  of  this  kind  are  not,  however,  without  their  use.  They 
frequently  abound  in  loose,  sandy  soil,  which  they  serve  to  bind  and  secure 
against  the  inroads  of  the  water  and  even  the  sea  itself.  Holland  is  said  to 
owe  its  very  existence  to  the  repent  stems  of  such  plants  as  the  Mat-grass 
(Arundo  arenaria),  Carex  arenaria,  and  Elymus  arenarius,  which  overrun  the 
artificial  dykes  upon  its  shores,  and  by  their  innumerable  roots  and  creepers 
apparently  bind  the  loose  sand  into  a  firm  barrier  against  the  washing  of  the 
waves.  So  the  turf,  chiefly  composed  of  repent  Grass-stems,  forms  the  only 
security  of  our  own  sandy  or  clayey  hills  against  the  washing  rains. 


258,  Rhizoma  of  Solomon's  Seal  (Polygonatum  multiflorum).  a,  Fragment  of  the  first  year's  growth  ; 
b,  the  second  year's  growth  ;  c,  growth  of  the  third  year ;  d,  growth  of  the  present  (fourth)  year,  bearing 
the  stem,  which,  on  decaying,  will  leave  a  scar  (seal)  like  the  rest.  259,  Premorse  root  of  Trillium  erectum. 

233.  THE  RHIZOME,  or  ROOT-STOCK,  differs  from  the 
creeper  only  in  being  shorter  and  thicker,  having  its 
internodes  but  partially  developed.  It  is  a  prostrate, 
fleshy,  rooting  stem,  either  wholly  or  partially  subter- 
ranean, often  scaly  with  the  bases  of  undeveloped 
leaves,  or  marked  with  the  scars  of  former  leaves,  and 
yearly  producing  new  shoots  and  roots.  Such  is  the 
fleshy,  horizontal  portion  of  the  Blood-root,  Sweet-flag, 
Water-lily,  and  Bramble  (the  latter  hardly  different 
from  the  creeper). 


94 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[79,  80. 


234.  The  growth  of  the  rhizome  is  instructive,  marking  its  peculiar  character. 
Each  joint  marks  the  growth  of  a  year.     In  Spring,  the  terminal  bud  unfolds 
into  leaves  and  flowers,  to  perish  in  Autumn  — a  new  bud  to  open  the  follow- 
ing Spring,  and  a  new  internode,  with  its  roots,  to  abide  several  years.     The 
number  of  joints  indicates,  not  the  age  of  the  plant,  but  the  destined  age  of 
each  internode.     Thus  if  there  are  three  joints,  we  infer  that  they  are  trien- 
nial, perishing  after  the  third  season,  while  the  plant  still  grows  on. 

235.  THE  PRJEMORSE  ROOT,  or   ROOT-STOCK,  is  short, 
erect,  ending  abruptly  below,    as   if  bitten   square   off 
(praemorsus).      This   is  mostly  owing  to  the  death  of 
the  earlier   and  lower  internodes  in  succession,  as  in 
the  horizontal  rhizome.     The  root  of  Scabious  and  the 
rhizomes  of  Viola  pedata  and  Benjamin-root  are   ex- 
amples. 


Tubers  as  they  grow.— 280,  The  common  Potato  (Solanum).     261,  Artichoke  (Helianthus).     262,  Sweet 

Potato  (Convolvulus). 

236.  CROWN   OF  THE  ROOT  designates  a  short  stem 
with  condensed  internodes,  remaining  upon  some  per- 
ennial roots,  at  or  beneath  the   surface-soil,  after  the 
leaves  and  annual  stems  have  perished. 

237.  THE  TUBER  is  an  annual  thickened  portion  of 
a  subterranean   stem   or  branch,  provided  with  latent 


80,  81.] 


FOKMS    OF    SCALE-BEAKING    STEMS. 


95 


buds  called  eyes,  from  which  new  plants  ensue  the 
succeeding  year.  It  is  the  fact  of  its  origin  with  the 
ascending  axis,  and  the  production  of  buds,  that  places 
the  tuber  among  stems  instead  of  roots.  The  Potato 
and  Artichoke  are  examples. 

238.  The  stem  of  the  Potato-plant  sends  out  roots  from  its  base,  and 
branches  above,  like  other  plants ;  but  we  observe  that  its  branches  have  two 
distinct  modes  of  development.  Those  branches  which  rise  into  the  air, 
whether  issuing  from  the  above-ground  or  the  under-ground  portion  of  the 
stem,  expand  regularly  into  leaves,  etc. ;  while  those  lower  branches  which 
continue  to  grope  in  the  dark,  damp  ground,  cease  at  length  to  elongate, 
swell  up  at  the  ends  into  tubers  with  developed  buds  and  abundance  of  nutri- 
tious matter  in  reserve  for  renewed  growth  the  following  year. 


265 


£63 


\ 


263,  Conns  of  Putty-root  (A plectrum)  ;   a,  of  last  year — 6,  of  the  present  year.    264,  Scale-bulb  of  White 
Lily.    265,  Scale-bulb  of  Oxalis  violacea. 

.239.  THE  COKM  is  an  under-ground,  solid,  fleshy 
stem,  with  condensed  internodes,  never  extending,  but 
remaining  of  a  rounded  form  covered  with  thin  scales. 
It  is  distinguished  from  roots  by  its  leaf-bud,  which  is 
either  borne  at  the  summit,  as  in  the  Crocus,  or  at  the 
side,  as  in  the  Colchicum  and  Putty-root  (Aplectrum). 
240.  THE  BULB  partakes  largely  of  the  nature  of 
the  bud.  It  consists  of  a  short,  dilated  axis,  bearing 
an  oval  mass  of  thick,  fleshy  scales,  closely  packed 


96 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[81,  82. 


above,  a  circle  of  adventitious  roots  around  its  base, 
and  a  flowering  stem  from  the  terminal  or  a  lateral  bud. 

241.  How  multiplied.  —  Bulbs  are  renewed  or  multiplied   annually  at  the 
approach  of  Winter  by  the  development  of  bulbs  from  the  axils  of  the  scales, 
which  increase  at   the   expense  of  the 

old,  and  ultimately  become  detached. 
Bulbs  which  flower  from  the  terminal 
bud  are  necessarily  either  annual  or  bi- 
ennial ;  those  flowering  from  an  axillary ' 
bud  may  be  perennial,  as  the  terminal 
bud  may  in  this  case  continue  to  de- 
velop new  scales  indefinitely. 

242.  Bulbs  are  said  to  be 

tunicated  when  they  consist        2C6,BuibofLiimm 

*  &  rhizome  ;  a,  full  grown  bulb  sending  up  a  ter- 

of  concentric  layers,  each  en-  ^talyfaerm  C)  and  two  offsets  66)  for  the  bulbs  of 
tire  and  inclosing  all  within 

it,  as  in  the  Onion.  But  the  more  common  variety  is 
the  scaly  bulb  —  consisting  of  fleshy,  concave  scales, 
arranged  spirally  upon  the  axis,  as  in  the  Lily 

243.  The  tuber,    corm,    and   bulb  are   analogous   forms   approaching  by 
degrees  to  the  character  of  the  bud,  which  consists  of  a  little  axis  bearing  a 
covering  of  scales.     In  the  tuber,  the  axis  is  excessively  developed,  while  the 
scales  are  reduced  to  mere  linear  points.    In  the  corm  the  analogy  is  far  more 
evident,  for  the  axis  is  less  excessive   and   the  scales  more  manifest;  and 
lastly,  in  the  bulb   the  analogy  is  complete,  or  overdone,  'the  scales  often  be- 
coming excessive. 

270 


267,  Corm  of  Crocus,  with  new  ones  forming  above.  268,  Vertical  section  of  the  same.  269,  Section  of 
bulb  of  Hyacinth,  with  terminal  scape  and  axillary  bulblet.  270,  Section  of  bulb  of  Oxalis  violacea,  with 
axillary  scapes. 


82,  83.] 


THE    LEAF-BUD. 


97 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

THE    LEAF-BUD. 

244.  It  is  but  a  step  from  the  study  of  the  bulb  to 
that  of  the  leaf-bud.    Buds  are  of  two  kinds  in  respect 
to  their  contents  —  the  leaf-bud  contain- 
ing the  rudiments  of  a  leafy    stem   or 

branch,  the  flower-bud  containing  the 
same  elements  transformed  into  the 
nascent  organs  of  a  flower  for  the 
purpose  of  reproduction. 

245.  The    leaf-bud    consists    of    a 
brief,  cone-shaped  axis    with    a    tender 
growing    point,    bearing    a    protecting 
covering   of   imbricated   scales    and   in- 
cipient leaves. 

246.  The  leafy  nature   of  the  scales 
is  evident  from  a  careful  inspection  of 
such  buds  as  those   of  the    Rose,  Cur- 
rant, Tulip-tree,  when   they  are  swollen 
or    bursting    in    Spring.      The    student 
will  notice   a  gradual   change  from  the 
outer    scales    to    the    evident  leaves  or 
stipules  within,  as  seen  in  Fig.  273.     As 
a  further  protection  against   frost   and 
rain,     we     find    the     scales    sometimes 


271 


171,   Branch   of   Pear- 
tree.    The  terminal  bud  a, 
having  been  destroyed,  an 
.,-!-,.  ,  .  axillary    bud    supplied    its 

clothed    with     hairs,     sometimes     var-  Piace,  and  formed  the  *»« 

•    i        -,  ..,  .  „,,    .          .  -,          ,      6.      c,    Thickened    branch 

msned   with   resin.      This    is    abundant  with  flower-buds;*  branch 

-,  ...  .,  TT  PIT  with  leaf -buds.     272,  t,  sec 

and  very  aromatic  in  the  buds   of  the  tion  of  terminal  bud ;  ?,  of 
Balm-of-Gilead  and  other  Poplars. 

247.  In  regard  to  position,  buds  are  either  terminal 
or    axillary,   a    distinction    already    noticed.      Axillary 


98  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [83,84. 

buds  are  especially  noted  as  being  either  active  or 
latent.  In  the  former  case  they  are  unfolded  into 
branches  at  once,  or  in  the  Spring  following  their 
formation.  But  latent  buds  suspend  their  activities 
from  year  to  year,  or  perhaps  are  never  quickened 
into  growth.  Axillary  buds  become  terminal  so  soon 
as  their  development  fairly  commences  ;  therefore 
each  branch  also  has  a  terminal  bud,  and,  like  the 


273,  Bud  of  Currant  unfolding, — the  scales  gradually  becoming  leases.    2"4,  Bud  of  Tulip-tree,— the  scales 

unfolding  into  stipules. 

main  axis,  is  capable  of  extending  its  growth  as  long 
as  that  bud  remains  unharmed.  If  it  be  destroyed  by 
violence  or  frost,  or  should  it  be  transformed  into  a 
flower-bud,  the  growth  in  that  direction  forever 
ceases. 

248.  The  suppression  of  axillary  buds  tends  to 
simplify  the  form  of  the  plant.  Their  total  suppres- 
sion during  the  first  year's  growth  of  the  terminal 
bud  is  common,  as  in  the  annual  stem  of  Mullein  and 
in  most  perennial  stems.  When  axillary  buds  remain 
permanently  latent,  and  only  the  terminal  bud  unfolds 
year  after  year,  a  simple,  branchless  trunk,  crowned 


83-85.] 


THE    LEAF-BUD. 


99 


with  a  solitary  tuft  of  leaves,  is  the  result,  as  in  the 
Palmetto  of  our  southern  borders. 

249.  A  partial  suppression  of  buds  occurs  in  almost  all  species,  and  gen- 
erally in  some  definite  order.     In  plants  with,  opposite  leaves,  sometimes  one 
bud  of  the  pair  at  each  node  is  developed  and  the  other  is  suppressed,  as  in 
the  Pink  tribe.     When  both  buds  are  developed,  the  branches,  appearing  in 
pairs  like  arms,  are  said  to  be  brachiate,  as  in  the  Labiates,     In  many  trees 
the  terminal  buds  are  arrested  by  inflo- 
rescence each  season,  and  the  growth 

is  continued  by  axillary  buds  alone,  as 
in  the  Catalpa  and  Horse-chestnut. 
In  all  trees,  indeed,  buds  are  sup- 
pressed more  or  less,  from  various 
causes,  disguising  at  length,  the  in- 
tended symmetry  of  the  branches,  to 
the  utter  confusion  of  twigs  and  spray. 

250.  Accessory  Ituds,  one 
or     more,    are     sometimes 
found  just  above  the  true 
axillary    bud,    or    clustered 
with    it,    and    only    distin- 
guished   from    it    by   their 
smaller    size  ;     as    in    the 
Cherry  and  Honeysuckle. 

251.  Adventitious  or  ac- 
cidental buds  are  such  as 
are    neither    terminal    nor 


275 


276 


275,    Hypericnm     Savothra,     with     brachiate 
branches.      276,    Pink   (Dianthus)— axillary   buds 

axillary.    They  occasionally  " 

appear  on  any  part  of  the  plant  in  the  internodes  of 
the  stem  or  branches,  on  the  root  or  even  the  leaves. 
Such  buds  generally  result  from  some  abnormal  con- 
dition of  the  plant,  from  pruning  or  other  destruction 
of  branches  or  stem  above,  while  the  roots  remain  in 
full  vigor ;  thus  destroying  the  equilibrium  of  vital 
force  between  the  upper  and  lower  axis.  The  leaf  of 
the  Walking-fern  emits  rootlets  and  buds  at  its  apex ; 
the  leaf  of  Bryophyllum  from  its  margin,  each  bud 


100  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [85. 

here  also  preceded  by  a  rootlet.  Some  plants  are  thus 
artificially  propagated  in  conservatories  from  the  influ- 
ence of  heat  and  moisture  on  a  leaf  or  the  fragment 
of  a  leaf,  as  Begonia. 

252.  Vernation  or  praefoliation  are  terms  denoting 
the    mode    of    arrangement    and    folding    of    the    leaf 
organs  composing  the  bud.      This  arrangement  is  defi- 
nitely varied  in   different  orders  of  plants,  furnishing 
useful  distinctions  in  systematic   botany.      It   may  be 
studied  to  excellent  advantage  by  making  with  a  keen 
instrument   a   cross-section  of  the  bud  in  its  swollen 
state,  just  before   expansion ;    or  it   may  be   well  ob- 
served by  removing  one  by  one  the  scales.    The  Forms 
of  Vernation  are  entirely  analogous  to  those  of  ^Esti- 
vation, and  denoted  by  similar  terms. 

253.  Vernation  is    considered  in   two   different  as- 
pects—  first,  the    manner    in  which    the    leaf  itself  is 
folded ;  second,  the   arrangement  of  the  leaves  in  re- 
spect  to   each   other.     This  depends    much   upon   the 
Phyllotaxy.  (§  261.) 


288 


Vernation,  277,  of  Oak  leaf  ;  278,  of  Liriodendron  (Tulip-tree).    279,  of  Fern  ;    280,  of  Carex  ;   281,  Sage  ; 

282,  Iris. 

254.  Each  leaf  considered  alone  is  either  flat  and 
open,  as  in  the  Mistletoe,  or  it  is  folded  or  rolled,  as 
follows  :  viz.,  Reclined,  when  folded  crosswise,  with 
apex  bent  over  forward  toward  the  base,  as  in  the 
Tulip-tree  ;  Conduplicate,  when  folded  perpendicularly, 


85,  86.] 


THE    LEAF-BUD. 


with  the  lateral  halves  brought  together  face  to  face, 
as  in  the  Oak ;  'Plaited,  or  Plicate,  each  leaf  folded 
like  a  fan,  as  in  Birch. 

255.  Circinate   implies  that   each   leaf   is   rolled   or 
coiled  downward  from  the    apex,   as   in   Sundew  and 
the  Ferns. 

256.  The  Convolute  leaf  is  wholly  rolled  up  from 
one  of  its  sides,  as  in  the  Cherry ;  while  the  Involute 
has  both  its  edges  rolled  inward,  as  in  Apple,  Violet ; 
and  the  Revolute  has  both  margins  rolled  outward  and 
backward,     as     in     the 

Dock,  Willow,  Rosemary. 


Vernation,  283,  of  Birch  leaf  ;   284,  of  Lilac  (imbricate) ;   285,  Cheny  leaves  (convolute)  ;   286,  Dock  bud 
(revolute)  ;   287,  Balm  of  Gilead  (involute). 

257.  The  general  vernation  is  loosely  distinguished 
in   descriptive  botany  as  valvate  (edges  meeting),  and 
imbricate    (edges    overlapping),    terms    to    be    noticed 
hereafter.     The   valvate   more   often   occurs   in  plants 
with  opposite  leaves ;  as  in  the  St.  John's-wort  family, 
Hypericum  Sarothra  (275). 

258.  Imbricate  vernation  is  Equitant  (riding  astrad- 
dle), when  conduplicate  leaves   alternately   embrace  — 
the  outer  one  the  next  inner  by  its  unfolded  margins, 
as  in  the  Privet  and   Iris  (282).      It   is  Obvolute  when 
it   is   half-equitant ;    that   is,   the   outer  leaf  embraces 
only  one   of  the  margins  of  the  inner,  as  in  the  Sage 
(281).      Again,  it  is  Triquetrous  where  the  bud  is  tri- 
angular  in   section   and   the   leaves   equitant    at    each 
angle,  as  in  the  Sedges  (280). 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[86,  87. 


259.  The    principle    of  budding. —  Each    leaf-bud 
may  be  regarded  as  a  dis- 
tinct   individual,    capable 

of  vegetating  either  in  its 
native  position,  or  when 
removed  to  another,  as  is 
extensively  practiced  in 
the  important  operation 
of  budding. 

260.  Bulblets.  — In    the  Tiger-lily, 
also  in  Cicuta  bulbif  era,  and  Aspidium 
bulbiferum,  the  axillary  buds    sponta-  m  290,  showing  the  process 

of  "budding."' 

neously  detach  themselves,  fall  to  the 

ground,   and  become    new  plants.      These   remarkable 

little  bodies  are  called  bulblets. 


x 


CHAPTER    XIX. 


PHYLLOTAXY,    OR    LEAF-ARRANGEMENT. 


261.  As   the  position   of  the   leaf  upon   the  stem 
marks  the  position  of  the  axillary  bud,  it  follows  that 
the  order  of  the  leaf-arrangement  will  be  the  order  of 
the    branches    also.      Phyllotaxis,  or    leaf-arrangement 
(from  0i5AAov,  leaf,  rdfa,  order),  depends  chiefly  on  the 
mode   of  origin  of  the   leaves  at  the  apex  of  growth, 
and  on  the  subsequent  elongation  and  twisting  of  the 
axis  on  which  they  grow. 

262.  In  regard  to  position,  leaves  are  radical  when 
they  grow  out  of  the  stem  at  or  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  so  as  to  appear  to  grow  from  the  roots ; 
cauline,  when  they  grow  from  the  stem ;    and  ramal 


87,  88.] 


LEAF- ARRANGEMENT. 


103 


a  branch),  when  from  the  branches.  Their 
arrangement  on  the  axis  is  according  to  the  following 
general  modes : 

Alternate,  one  above  another  on  opposite  sides,  as 
in  the  Elm. 

Scattered,  irregularly  spiral,  as  in  the  Potato  vine. 

Rosulate,  clustered  regularly,  like  the  petals  of  a 
Rose,  as  in  the  Plantain  and  Shepherd's-purse. 


291,  Lady's-slipper  (leaves  alternate);  292,  Synandra  grandiflora  (leaves  opposite)  ;    294,  Medeola  Virginica 
(leaves  verticillate)  ;  293,  Larix  Americana  (leaves  fasciculate). 

Fasciculate,  tufted,  clustered  many  together  in  the 
axil,  as  seen  in  the  Pine,  Larch,  Berberry. 

Opposite,  two,  against  each  other,  at  the  same  node. 
Ex.,  Maple.  When  successive  pairs  of  opposite  leaves 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  they  are  said  to  be 
decussate. 

Verticillate,  or  whorled,  more  than  two  in  a  circle 
at  each  node,  as  in  the  Meadow-lily,  Trumpet-weed. 
We  may  reduce  all  these  modes  to  TWO  GENERAL  TYPES, 


104  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [88,89. 

—  the  alternate,  including  all  cases  with  one  leaf  at 
each  node  ;  the  opposite,  including  cases  with  two  or 
more  leaves  at  each  node. 

263.  The   character   of  the  alternate  type   of  leaf- 
arrangement    is    sometimes    represented    by    a    spiral, 
which    was    at    one    time    supposed    to    be    invariable. 
This   generating   spiral,  as  it  was  called,  is   illustrated 
by  Figures  295-300.      Take   a  straight  leafy  shoot  or 
stem  of  the  Elm  or  Flax,  or  any  other  plant  with  seem- 
ingly scattered   leaves,  and  beginning  with  the  lowest 
leaf,  pass  a  thread  to  the  next    above,  thence  to   the 
next    in    the    same    direction,    and    so    on    by    all  the 
leaves    to    the    top  ;    the   thread  will    form    a    regular 
spiral. 

264.  The    Elm    cycle. — In    the    strictly    alternate 
arrangement   (Elm,  Linden,  Grasses)   the   spiral  thread 
makes  one  complete  circuit  and  commences  a  new  one 
at  the  third  leaf.     The  third  leaf  stands  over  the  first, 
the   fourth   over  the   second,  and  so  on,  forming  two 
vertical  rows  of  leaves.      Here  (calling  each  complete 
circuit   a   cycle)    we   observe,    first,    that   this   cycle  is 
composed    of    two    leaves ;    second,    that    the    angular 
distance    between    its    leaves    is    ^    a    circle    (180°)  ; 
third,   if  we   express   this   cycle   mathematically  by  J, 
the   numerator   (1)   will   denote    the  turns    or  revolu- 
tions, the    denominator    (2)    its   leaves,    and   the   frac- 
tion  itself  the    angular    distance    between    the    leaves 
(i  of  360°). 

265.  The  Alder  cycle. —  In  the  Alder,  Birch,  Sedges, 
etc.,  the  cycle  is  not  complete  until  the  fourth  leaf  is 
reached.      The    fourth   leaf   stands   over  the    first,   the 
fifth  over  the  second,  etc.,  forming  three  vertical  rows. 
Here   call   the   cycle   % ;    1    denotes   the    turns,    3    the 


LEAF-ARRANGEMENT. 


105 


leaves,   and  the   fraction   itself    the    angular   distance 
(i  of  360°). 

266.  The  Cherry  cycle.  —  In  the  Cherry,  Apple, 
Peach,  Oak,  Willow,  etc.,  neither  the  third  nor  the 
fourth  leaf,  but  the  sixth,  stands  over  the  first;  and 
in  order  to  reach  it  the  thread  makes  two  turns 
around  the  stem.  This  arrangement  is  very  frequent ; 
but  more  or  less  disguised  by  the  torsions  which  the 
axis  experiences  in  process  of  growth. 


295 

295,  296,  297,  Showing  the  course  of  the  spiral  thread  and  the  order  of  the  leaf-succession  in  the  axes  of 
Elm,  Alder,  and  Cherry.  298,  Axis  of  Osage-orange  with  a/section  of  the  bark  peeled,  displaying  the  order 
of  the  leaf-scars  (cycle  %). 


rith  a/s 


267.  In    the    Osage-orange,    the    Holly,    and    some 
other    plants,    the    attempt    has    been   .made    to    find 
spirals  of  a  higher  order. 

268.  In  the  leaves  of  House-leek  and  the  cones  of 
Pine-trees  the  number  of  members  is  very  large. 

269.  The  common  arrangement  is  represented  by 
a  series  of  fractions,  each  fraction  indicating  the  pro- 
portion borne  by  the  angular  divergence  to  the  entire 
circumference.      Thus  |,  for  the  Cherry,  indicates  that 
the  angular  divergence  between  successive    leaves   i§ 


106 


STKUCTUKAL    BOTANY. 


[90,  91. 


two  fifths  of  a  circle,  or  144°.  It  also  shows  that  in 
following  the  spiral  from  any  particular  leaf  to  one 
directly  above  it,  you  must  go  round  the  stem  twice 
and  pass  to  the  fifth  leaf  above,  and  that  there  are 
five  orthostichies  or  vertical  rows  of  leaves  (Fig.  297). 


299 


299,  Phyllotaxy  of  the  cone  (cycle  5\)  of  Finns  serotina.  The  scales  are  numbered  (1,  2,  3,  etc.)  in 
order  as  they  occur  in  the  formative  cycle.  Between  1  and  22  are  8  turns  and  21  scales,  etc.  300, 
Cherry  cycle  (|)  as  viewed  from  above,  forming  necessarily  that  kind  of  aestivation  called  quincuncial. 

270.  It  is  now  known  that  the  angle  of  divergence 
varies  in  different  regions  of  the  same  shoot ;  and 
that  frequently  a  shoot  beginning  with  a  simple  ar- 
rangement, afterward  passes  on  to  a  more  compli- 
cated pattern. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

MORPHOLOGY    OF    THE    LEAF. 

271.  The  leaf  constitutes  the  verdure  of  plants,  and 
is  by  far  the  most  conspicuous  and  beautiful  object  in 
the  scenery  of  nature.  It  is  also  of  the  highest  im- 
portance in  the  vegetable  economy,  being  the  organ 
of  digestion  and  respiration.  It  is  characterized  by  a 


91,92.]  MORPHOLOGY    OF    THE    LEAF.  107 

thin  and  expanded  form,  presenting  the  largest  possible 
surface  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  light,  which  agents 
are  indispensable  to  the  life  and  increase  of  the  plant. 
The  leaf  may  be  regarded  as  an  expansion  of  the 
substance  of  the  stem,  extended  into  a  broad  thin 
plate  by  means  of  a  woody  frame-work  or  skeleton, 
connected  with  the  inner  part  of  the  axis.  The  ex- 
panded portion  is  called  the  lamina  or  blade  of  the 
leaf,  and  it  is  either  sessile,  that  is,  attached  to  the 
stem  by  its  base,  or  it  is  petiolate,  attached  to  the 
stem  by  a  footstalk  called  the  petiole. 

272.  The    regular    petiole  very  often  bears  at    its 
base   a  pair   of  leaf-like   appendages,  more   or  less  ap- 
parent, called  stipules.    Leaves  so  appendaged  are  said 
to  be  stipulate;    otherwise  they  are  exstipulate. 

273.  Therefore    a    complete    leaf  consists  of    three 
distinct  parts  —  the    lamina   or   blade,  the  petiole,   and 
the  stipules.     These  parts  are  subject  to  endless  trans- 
formations.     Either   of    them    may    exist   without   the 
others,    or    they   may    all    be    transformed    into    other 
organs,  as  pitchers,  spines,  tendrils,  and   even  into  the 
organs  of  the  flower,  as  will  hereafter  appear. 

274.  The   Petiole  in  form  is  rarely  cylindrical,  but 
more   generally  flattened    or   channeled   on   the   upper 
side.     When  it  is  flattened  in  a  vertical  direction,  it  is 
said  to  be  compressed,  as  in  the  Aspen  or  Poplar.      In 
this  case,  the  blade   is  very  unstable,  and  agitated  by 
the   least  breath   of  wind.     The  winged  petiole  is  flat- 
tened or  expanded  into  a  margin,  but  laterally  instead 
of  vertically,  as  in  the  Orange.     Sometimes  the  margins 
outrun   the   petioles,  and  extend  down  the  stem,  mak- 
ing that  winged,  or  alate,  also.      Such  leaves  are  said 
to  be  decurrent  (decurro,  run  down).    Ex.,  Mullein. 


108  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [92. 

275.  The  amplexicaul  petiole  is  dilated  at  the  base 
into  a  margin  which   surrounds  or  clasps  the  stem,  as 
in    the    Umbellifers.      Frequently    we    find    the    stem- 
clasping     margins    largely    developed,     constituting    a 
sheath  —  with  free  edges  in  the  Grasses,  or  closed  into 
a  tube  in  the  Sedges. 

276.  The   petiole   is  simple   in  the  simple  leaf,  but 
compound  or  branched  in  the   compound  leaf,  with  as 
many   branches   (petiolules)   as  there   are   divisions   of 
the  lamina.      A  leaf  is  simple  when  its  blade  consists 
of  a  single  piece,  however  cut,  cleft,  or  divided ;   and 
compound  when  it   consists  of   several  distinct  blades, 
supported  by  as  many  branches  of  a  compound  petiole. 


301,  Rose  leaf,  odd-pinnate,  witb   adnate  stipules.    302,  Violet  (V.  tricolor),  with  simple  leaf  (I),  and  free 

compound  stipules. 

277.  Stipules   are   certain   leaf-like   expansions,  al- 
ways in  pairs,  situated  one  on  each  side  of  the  petiole 
near  the  base.    They  do  not  occur  in  every  plant,  but 
are  pretty  uniformly  present    in   each  species  of   the 
same  natural  order.     In  substance  and  color  they  usu- 
ally resemble  the  leaf ;  sometimes  they  are  colored  like 
the  stem,   often  they   are   membranous   and  colorless. 
In    the    Palmetto    the    leaf-base  is    a  coarse    net-work 
resembling  canvas. 

278.  Stipules  are  often  adnate,  or  adherent  to  the 
petiole,  as  in  the  Rose ;  more  generally  they  are  free, 


92,  93.] 


MOKPHOLOGY    OF    THE    LEAF. 


109 


as  in  the  Pea  and  Pansy.  In  these  cases  and  others 
they  act  the  part  of  leaves ;  again  they  are  often  very 
small  and  inconspicuous. 

279.  An  Ochrea  is  a  membranous  sheath  inclosing 
the  stem  from  the  node  upward,  as  in  the  Knot-grass 
family  (Polygonacese).  It  is  formed  of  the  two  stipules 


303,  Leaf  of  Selinum,  tripinnate,  with  sheathing  petiole.  304,  Leaf  of  Polygonum  Pennsylvanicum, 
with  its  (  o )  ochrea.  305,  Culm  of  Grass,  with  joint  ( j ),  leaf  ( I ),  ligule  (  « ).  306,  Leaf  of  Pear-tree,  with 
slender  stipules. 

cohering  by  their  two  margins.  In  case  the  two  stip- 
ules cohere  by  their  outer  margin  only,  a  double  stip- 
ule is  formed  opposite  to  the  leaf,  as  in  the  Button- 
wood.  If  they  cohere  by  their  inner  margin,  the 
double  stipule  appears  in  the  leaf  axil,  as  in  the  Pond- 
weed  (Potamogeton).  The  Ligule  of  the  Grasses  is 
generally  regarded  as  a  double  axillary  stipule.  The 
leaflets  of  compound  leaves  are  sometimes  furnished 
with  little  stipules,  called  stipels. 

280.  Inter-petiolar  stipules  occur  in  a  few  opposite- 
leaved  tribes,  as  the  Galium  tribe.  Here  we  find  them 
as  mere  bristles  in  Diodia,  while  in  Galium  they  look 
like  the  leaves,  forming  whorls.  Such  whorls,  if.  com- 
plete, will  be  apparently  6 -leaved,  consisting  of  two 
true  leaves  and  four  stipules.  But  the  adjacent 
stipules  are  often  united,  and  the  whorl  becomes 
4-leaved,  and  in  some  the  whorl  is  8 -leaved. 


110  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [93, 94. 

281.  Stipules  are  often  fugacious,  existing  as  scales 
in   the   bud,  and   falling  when    the   leaves  expand,  or 
soon  after,  as  in  the  Magnolia  and  Tulip-tree. 

282.  Nature  of  veins.  — The  blade  of  the  leaf  con- 
sists  of,  (1)  the  frame-work,  and   (2)  the   tissue  com- 
monly   called    the   parenchyma.      The    frame-work    is 
made    up    of   the    branching    vessels  of  the  footstalk, 
which  are  woody  tubes  pervading  the  parenchyma,  and 
conveying    nourishment    to    every    part.      Collectively, 
these  vessels    are    called    veins,   from    the    analogy  of 
their  functions.    VENATION  is  the  division  and  distribu- 
tion  of   the    veins.      The   several   organs   of  venation, 
differing  from   each   other   only  in   size   and   position, 
may  be  termed  the  midvein,  veins,  veinlets,  and  veinu- 
lets.      (The   old  terms,  midrib  and  nerves,  being  ana- 
tomically absurd,  are  here  discarded.) 

283.  The  Midvein  is  the  principal  axis  of  the  vena- 
tion, or  prolongation  of  the  petiole,  running  directly 
through  the  lamina,  from  base  to  apex,  as  seen  in  the 
leaf  of  the  Oak  or  Birch.      If  there  be  several  similar 
divisions  of  the  petiole,  radiating  from  the  base  of  the 
leaf,  they  are  appropriately  termed  Veins ;  and  the  leaf 
is  said  to  be    three-veined,    five-veined,   as    in    Maple. 
The   primary  branches   sent   off   from   the   midvein  or 
the  veins  we  may  term  the  Veinlets,  and  the  second- 
ary branches,  or  those  sent  off  from  the  veinlets,  are 
the  Veinulets.      These  also  branch  and  subdivide  until 
they  become  too  small  to  be  seen. 

284.  Botanists  distinguish  three  modes  of  venation, 
which    are    in    general  characteristic    of    three   Grand 
Divisions  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom — viz.: 

Reticulate    or    Net-veined,   as    in    the   DICOTYLEDONS 
(called  also  EXOGENS).      This  kind  of  venation  is  char- 


94,  95.] 


MORPHOLOGY    OF    THE    LEAF. 


Ill 


acterized  by  the  frequent  reunion  or  inosculation  of 
its  numerously  branching  veins,  so  as  to  form  a  kind 
of  irregular  net-work. 


310 


Varieties  of  venation .— 307,  Feather-veined,— leaf  of  Betula  populifolia  (White  Birch),  lying  upon  a  leaf 
of  Plum-tree  ;  same  venation  with  different  outlines.  3  8,  Palmate- veined, —leaf  of  White  Maple,  con- 
trasted with  leaf  of  Cercis  Canadensis.  309,  Parallel  venation,— plant  of  "three-leaved  Solomon's  seal" 
(Smilacina  trifoliata).  310,  Forked  venation,— Climbing  Fern  (Lygodium). 

Parallel-veined,  as  in  the  MONOCOTYLEDONS  (called 
also  ENDOGENS).  The  veins,  whether  straight  or  curved, 
ran  parallel,  or  side  by  side,  to  the  apex  of  the  leaf  or 
to  the  margin,  and  are  connected  by  simple  transverse 
veinlets  hardly  seen. 

Fork-veined,  as  in  the  Ferns  (and  other  CRYPTOGAMS 
where  veins  are  present  at  all).  Here  the  veins  divide 
and  subdivide  in  a  forked  manner,  and  do  not  reunite. 

285.  Of  the  Reticulate  venation  the  student  should 
carefully  note  three  leading  forms :  viz.,  The  Feather- 
veined  (pinni-veined)  leaf  is  that  in  which  the  venation 
consists  of  a  midvein  giving  off  at  intervals  lateral 
veinlets  and  branching  veinulets,  as  in  the  leaf  of 


112  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [95,  96. 

Beech,  Chestnut.  In  the  Radiate-veined  (palmi-veined) 
leaf,  the  venation  consists  of  several  veins  of  nearly 
equal  size  radiating  from  the  base  toward  the  circum- 
ference, each  with  its  own  system  of  veinlets.  Ex., 
Maple,  Crowfoot.  Lastly,  the  Tripli-^veined  seems  to 
be  a  form  intermediate  between  the  two  former,  where 
the  lowest  pair  of  veinlets  are  conspicuously  stronger 
than  the  others,  and  extend  with  the  midvein  toward 
the  summit  (see  Fig.  319). 

286.  In  parallel-veined  venation  the  veins  are  either 
straight,  as  in  the  linear  leaf  of  the  Grasses ;  curved, 
as  in  the  oval  leaf  of  the  Orchis;  or  transverse,  from 
a  rnidvein,  as  in  the  Canna,  Calla,  etc. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  LEAF  —  CONTINUED. 

287.  That  infinite  variety  of  beautiful  and  graceful 
forms    for    which    the   leaf    is    distinguished    becomes 
intelligible  to   the  student  only  when  viewed  in  con- 
nection with    its  venation.      Since    it    is   through   the 
veins  alone  that  nutriment  is  conveyed  for  the  devel- 
opment and  extension   of   the  parenchyma,  it  follows 
that  there  will  be  the  greatest    extension   of   outline 
where  the  veins  are  largest  and  most  numerous.    Con- 
sequently the  form  of  the  leaf  will  depend  upon  the 
direction  of  the  veins  and  the  vigor  of  their  action  in 
developing  the  intervening  tissue.     In  accordance  with 
this   theory,   leaf-forms   will   be    classed  in   respect  to 
their  venation.  M 

288.  Feather-veined   leaves.  — Of  these,  the  follow- 
ing forms  depend  upon  the  length  of  the  veinlets  in 


96,  97.] 


MORPHOLOGY    OF    THE    LEAF. 


113 


relation  to  each  other  and  to  the  midvein.  When  the 
lower  veinlets  are  longer  than  the  others,  the  form  of 
the  blade  will  be  (1)  ovate,  with  the  outline  of  an  egg, 
the  broad  end  at  the  base  ;  (2)  lanceolate,  or  lance- 
shaped,  narrower  than  ovate,  tapering  gradually  up- 
ward ;  (3)  deltoid,  or  triangular-shaped,  like  the  Greek 
letter  A. 


314 


Forms  of  leaves.— 311,  Rhododendron  maximum.  312,  Alnus  glutinosa  (cult).  313,  Polygonum  dum- 
etorum.  314,  Papaw.  315,  Impatiens  fulva.  316,  Celtis  Americana.  317,  Circaea  Lutetiana.  318,  Cat- 
mint. 319,  Solidago  Canadensis— a  tripli-veined  leaf. 

289.  If  the  middle  veinlets   exceed  the   others  in 
length,  the  leaf  will  be  (4)  orbicular,  roundish,  or  quite 
circular ;    (5)   elliptical,  with  the  outline  of  an  ellipse, 
nearly   twice    longer    than    broad  ;     (6)    oval,   broadly 
elliptical ;   (7)  oblong,  narrowly  elliptical. 

290.  When  the  veinlets  are  more  largely  developed 
in  the  upper  region  of  the  leaf,  its  form  becomes  (8) 
obovate,  inversely  ovate,  the  narrow  end  at  base ;   (9) 
oblanceolate,  that  is,  lanceolate  with  the  narrow  end  at 
base  ;  (10)  spatulate,  like  a  spatula,  with  a  narrow  base 
and  a  broader,  rounded  apex;    (11)    cuneate  or  cunei- 
form, shaped  like  a  wedge  with  the  point  backward. 


114 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


t97,  98. 


291.  Again:  if  the  lowest  pair  of  veinlets  are  length- 
ened and  more  or  less  recurved,  the  leaf  will  be  vari- 


4  6  5  7       11     10  9       8 

320-330,  Diagrams  of  pinnate-veined  leaf-forms. 


ously  modified  in  respect  to  its  base,  becom- 
ing (334)  cordate,  or  heart-shaped,  an  ovate 
outline  with  a  sinus  or  re-entering  angle  at 
base;  (331)  auriculate,  with  ear-shaped  lobes 
at  base;  (337)  sagittate,  arrow-shaped,  with  the  lobes 
pointed,  and  directed  backward;  (332)  hastate,  halbert- 
shaped,  the  lobes  directed  outward. 


336 


Forms  of  leaves. — 330,  Silene  Virginica.  331,  Magnolia  Fraseri.  336,  Arabis  dentata.  337,  Polygonum 
sagittatum.  332,  Hepatica  acutiloba.  333,  Asarum  Virginicum.  334,  Hydrocotyle  Americana.  335,  H. 
umbellata. 

292.  Pinnatifid  forms.  —  The  following  pinnate- 
veined  forms,  approaching  the  compound  leaf,  depend 
less  upon  the  proportion  of  the  veinlets  than  upon  the 


98.] 


MORPHOLOGY    OF    THE    LEAF. 


115 


relative  development  of  the  intervening  tissue.  The 
prefix  pinnate  is  obviously  used  in  contrast  with 
palmate  among  palmate-veined  forms. 

293.  Pinnatifid  (pinna,  feather,  findo,  to  cleave), 
feather-cleft,  the  tissue  somewhat  sharply  cleft  between 
the  veinlets  about  half-way  to  the  midvein,  forming 
oblong  segments.  When  the  segments  of  a  pinnatifid 
leaf  are  pointed  and  curved  backward,  it  becomes  run- 
cinate,  i.  e.,  re-uncinate  (346).  When  the  terminal  seg- 
ment of  a  pinnatifid  leaf  is  orbicular  in  figure  and 
larger  than  any  other,  presenting  the  form  of  the 
ancient  lyre,  the  form  is  termed  lyrate  (340). 


342     339    338    340 


Feather -veined  leaves,  approaching  the  compound.— 338,  Quercus  imbricaria — undulate.  339,  Q.  alba 
(White  Oak')— lobate-sinuate.  340,  Q.  macrocarpa— lyrate.  341,  Mulgedium  (Milkweed).  342,  Bipinnatifld 
leaf  of  Ambrosia  artemisifolia  (Hogweed). 

294.  Pinnately  parted  implies  that  the  incisions  are 
deeper  than  pinnatifid,  nearly  reaching  the  midvein. 
In  either  case  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  sinuate  when  the 
incisions  (sinuses)  as  well  as  the  segments  are  rounded 
and  flowing  in  outline.      Such  segments  are  lobes,  and 
the  leaves  lobate  or  lobed,  a  very  generic  term. 

295.  Palmate   forms. — The   palmate   venation   pre- 
sents  us   with    a   set   of   forms  which   are,  in  general, 


116  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [98,99. 

broader  in  proportion  than  the  pinnate,  having  the 
breadth  about  equal  to  the  length.  Such  a  leaf  may 
be  rarely  broadly  ovate,  or  broadly  cordate,  terms  which 
require  no  further  explanation.  Or  it  may  be  Reni- 
form,  kidney-shaped,  having  a  flowing  outline  broader 
than  long,  concave  at  base ;  or  Peltate,  shield-form,  the 
petiole  not  inserted  at  the  margin,  but  in  the  midst 


$46 

Feather-veined   leaves  approaching  the   compound.-^,  Nigella  (pinnatisect).      344,  Cheledonium  majus. 
345,  Thistle  (Cirsium  lanceolatum).    346,  Dandelion  (runcinate-lyrate). 

of  the  lower  surface  of  the  blade.  This  singular  form 
evidently  results  from  the  blending  of  the  base  lobes 
of  a  deeply  cordate  leaf,  as  seen  in  Hydrocotyle.  It 
may  be  orbicular,  oval,  etc. 

296.  The  following  result  from  deficiency  of  tissue, 
causing  deep  divisions  between  the  veins.  Leaves  thus 
dissected  are  said  to  be  palmately-lobed  when  either 
the  segments  or  the  sinuses  are  somewhat  rounded  and 
continuous.  The  number  of  lobes  is  denoted  by  such 
terms  as  Trilobate,  trilobate,  five-lobed,  etc.  Leaves  are 


99,  100.] 


MORPHOLOGY    OF    THE    LEAF. 


117 


Palmate-veined  leaves.—  347,  Menispermum  Canadense.     348,  Passiflora   cerulea.     349,  Broussonetia  pa- 
pyrifera.    350,  Oak  Geranium. 

palmately  cleft  and  palmately  parted,  according  to  the 

depth  of  the  incisions  as  above    described.     But  the 

most  peculiar  modification  is  the 

Pedate,  like  a  bird's  .foot,  having 

the  lowest  pair  of  veins  enlarged, 

recurved,  and  bearing  each  several 

of  the  segments  (348). 

297.  The  forms  of  the  paral- 
lel-veined   leaves    are    remarkable 
for    their    even,    flowing    outlines, 
diversified  solely  by  the  direction 
and  curvature  of  the  veins.    When 
the   veins   are   straight,   the    most 
common  form  is  the  Linear,  long 
and  narrow,  with  parallel  margins, 
like  the  leaves  of  the  Grasses  —  a 
form  which  may  also  occur  in  the 
pinnate-veined  leaf,  when  the  vein- 
lets  are  all  equally  shortened.    The 
ensiform,  or  sword-shaped,  is  also 
linear,  but  has  its  edges  vertical, 
that  is,  directed  upward  and  down- 

Asm  ~r*r\ 

298.  If  the  veins  curve,  we  may  have  the  lanceolate, 


f  Juniperus  communis. 


118  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [100,101. 

elliptical,  or  even  orbicular  forms ;  and  if  the  lower 
curve  downward,  the  cordate,  sagittate,  etc.  Palmate 
forms  there  also  are,  splendidly  developed  in  the  Pal- 
metto and  other  Palms,  whose  large  leaves  are  appro- 
priately called  flabelliform  (fan-shaped). 

299.  The  leaves  of  the  Pine  and  the  Fir  tribe  (Coni- 
ferse)  generally  are  parallel-veined  also,  and  remark- 
able for  their  contracted  forms,  in  which  there  is  no 
distinction  of  petiole  or  blade.  Such  are  the  Acerose 
(needle-shaped)  leaves  of  the  Pine,  the  Subulate  (awl- 
shaped)  and  scale-form  leaves  of  the  Cedars,  etc. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

THE    COMPOUND    LEAF,    ETC. 

300.  If  we  conceive  of  a  simple  leaf  becoming  a 
compound  one,  on  the  principle  of  "  deficiency  of  tissue 
between  the  veins,"  it  will  be   evident  that  the  same 
forms    of   venation  are   represented  by  the  branching 
petioles  of  the  latter   as  by  the  veins  of  the   former. 
The  number  and  arrangement  of  the  parts  will  there- 
fore   in    like    manner    correspond    with    the    mode    of 
venation. 

301.  The  divisions  of  a  compound  leaf  are  called 
leaflets ;    and  the  same   distinction  of  outline,  margin, 
etc.,  occur  in  them  as  in  simple  leaves.    The  petiolules 
of  the   leaflets  may  or  may  not  be  articulated  to  the 
main  petiole,  or  rachis,  as  it  is  called. 

302.  Pinnately  compound. —  From  the  pinnate-veined 
arrangement  we  may  have  the  pinnate  leaf,  where  the 
petiole  (midvein)  bears  a  row  of  leaflets  on  each  side, 
either  sessile  or  petiolulate,  generally  equal  in  number 


101,  102.] 


THE    COMPOUND    LEAF. 


119 


and  opposite.  It  is  unequally  pinnate  (357)  when  the 
rachis  bears  an  odd  terminal  leaflet,  and  equally  pin- 
nate (356)  when  there  is  no  terminal  leaflet,  and  inter- 
ruptedly pinnate  when  the  leaflets  are  alternately  large 
and  small  (358). 

303.  The  number  of  leaflets  in  the  pinnate  leaf 
varies  from  thirty  pairs  and  upward  (as  in  some  Aca- 
cias), down  to  three,  when  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  ter- 
nate  or  trifoliate;  or  two,  becoming  ~binate ;  or  finally 


Compound  leaves  — 354,  Trifolium  repens 


355,  Desmodium  rotundifolium. 
358,  Agrimonia. 


357,  Cassia. 


even  to  one  leaflet  in  the  Lemon.  Such  a  leaf  is  theo- 
retically compound,  on  account  of  the  leaflet  (blade) 
being  articulated  to  the  petiole. 

304.  A  Hpinnate  leaf  (twice  pinnate)  is  formed 
when  the  rachis  bears  pinnce  or  secondary  pinnate 
leaves,  instead  of  leaflets  (361),  and  tripinnate  (thrice 
pinnate)  when  pinnae  take  the  places  of  the  leaflets  of 
a  bipinnate  leaf  (360).  When  the  division  is  still  more 
complicated,  the  leaf  is  decompound.  Different  degrees 
of  division  often  exist  in  different  parts  of  the  same 


120  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [102,103. 

leaf,  illustrating  the  gradual  transition  of  leaves  from, 
simple  to  compound  in  all  stages.  The  leaves  of 
the  Honey-locust  and  Coffee-tree  (Gymnocladus)  often 
afford  curious  and  instructive  examples  (362). 

305.  A  Hternate  leaf  is  formed  when  the  leaflets 
of  a  ternate  leaf  give  place  themselves  to  ternate 
leaves  (359),  and  triternate  when  the  leaflets  of  a 
biternate  leaf  again  give  place  to  ternate  leaves. 


361 
Compound  leaves.— 359,  Clematis.    360,  Erigenia  bulbosa.    361,  Acacia.    362,  Honey -locust. 

306.  Palmately  compound.  —  The  palmate  venation 
has  also  its  peculiar  forms  of  compound  leaves,  as  ter- 
nate, quinate,  septenate,  etc.,  according  to  the  number 
of  leaflets  which  arise  together  from   the   summit  of 
the  petiole.      Ternate  leaves  of  this  venation  are  to  be 
carefully  distinguished  from  those  of  the  pinnate  plan. 
The  palmately   ternate  leaf  consists   of  three  leaflets, 
which  are  either  all  sessile  or  stalked  alike ;  the  pin- 
nately  ternate  has  the  terminal  leaflet  raised  above  the 
other  two  on  the  prolonged  rachis  (354,  355). 

307.  Apex. — In  regard  to  the  termination  of  a  leaf 
or  leaflet   at   its   apex,   it  may  be   acuminate,  ending 


103,  104.] 


THE    COMPOUND    LEAF. 


121 


with  a  long,  tapering  point ;  cuspidate,  abruptly  con- 
tracted to  a  sharp,  slender  point ;  mucronate,  tipped 
with  a  spiny  point  ;  acute,  simply  ending  with  an 
angle  ;  obtuse,  rounded  at  the  point.  Or  the  leaf  may 


365  (I    '  ^363 

363,  Lemon.    364,  Jeffersonia.    365,  Potentilla  anserina.    366,  P.  tridentata. 

end  without  a  point,  being  truncate,  as  if  cut  square 
off ;  retuse,  with  a  rounded  end  slightly  depressed 
where  the  point  should  be  ;  emarginate,  having  a  small 
notch  at  the  end  ;  obcordate,  inversely  heart-shaped, 
having  a  deep  indentation  at  the  end. 


367-375,  Apex  of  leaves.— a,  obcordate  ;  Z>,  emarginate  ;  c,  retuse  ;  d,  trunct-te  ;  e,  obtuse  ;  /,  acute ;  g, 
mucronate ;  A,  cuspidate  ;  k,  acuminate. 

376-380,  Bases  of  leaves. — J,  hastate  ;  m,  n,  sagittate  ;  o,  auriculate;  p,  cordate  ;  q,  reniform. 

308.  Margin.  —  The  following  terms  are  used  to 
define  the  margin  of  the  leaf  or  leaflet,  with  no  refer- 
ence to  the  general  form.  If  the  leaf  be  even-edged, 
having  the  tissue  completely  filled  out,  the  appropriate 
term,  is  entire.  Sometimes  a  vein  runs  along  such  a 
margin  as  if  a  hem. 


122 


STKUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[104. 


309.  But  when  the  marginal  tissue  is  deficient,  the 
leaf  becomes  dentate,  having  sharp  teeth  pointing  out- 
ward from  the  center ;  serrate,  with  sharp  teeth  point- 
ing forward,  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw ;  crenate,  with 
rounded  or  blunt  teeth.  The  terms  denticulate,  serru- 
late, crenulate  denote  finer  indentations  of  the  several 
kinds ;  doubly  dentate,  etc.,  denote  that  the  teeth  are 
themselves  toothed. 


387 


38T) 


1,  Serrate  leaf  of  Chestnut.  382,  Doubly  serrate  leaf  of  Elm.  383,  Dentate  leaf  of  Arrow-wood.  384, 
Crenate  leaf  of  Catmint.  385,  Eepand  leaf  of  Circsea.  386,  Undulate  leaf  of  Shingle  Oak.  387,  Lobed 
leaf  of  Chrysanthemum. 

310.  The  undulate,  or  wavy  edge,  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent from  the  repand,  which  bends  like  the  margin 
of  an  umbrella.     If  the  veins  project,  and  are  tipped 
with    spines,    the    leaf    becomes    spinous.      Irregularly 
divided  margins  are  said  to  be  erose  or  jagged,  lacini- 
ate  or  torn,  incised  or  cut.     Often,  instead  of  a  defi- 
ciency, there  is  a  superabundance  of  marginal  tissue, 
denoted  by  the  term  crispate  or  crisped. 

311.  Insertion.  —  Several   important  terms  descrip- 
tive  of  the  various  modes  of  leaf-insertion  must  here 


104,105.]  THE    COMPOUND     LEAF.  123 

be  noticed.  A  sessile  leaf  is  said  to  be  amplexicaul 
when  its  base-lobes  adhere  to  and  clasp  the  stem. 
Should  these  lobes  extend  quite  around  the  stem  and 
on  the  other  side  become  blended  together,  a  perfoliale 
leaf  will  be  formed  (per,  through,  folium,  leaf),  the 
stem  seeming  to  pass  through  the  leaves.  When  the 
bases  of  two  opposite  sessile  leaves  are  so  united  as  to 
form  one  piece  of  the  two,  they  are  said  to  be  connate. 


Insertion  of  leaves. — 388,  Aster  laevis  (amplexicaul).    389,  Uvularia  perfoliata.    390.  Lonicera  sempervirens 

(connate). 

312.  Surface.  —  The  following  terms  are  applicable 
to  any  other  organs  as  well  as  leaves.  In  the  quality 
of  surface  the  leaf  may  be  glabrous  (smooth),  destitute 
of  all  hairs,  bristles,  etc.,  or  scabrous  (rough),  with 
minute,  hard  points,  hardly  visible.  A  dense  coat  of 
hairs  will  render  the  leaf  pubescent  when  the  hairs  are 
soft  and  short ;  villous  when  they  are  rather  long  and 
weak ;  sericeous,  or  silky,  when  close  and  satin-like ; 


124  STKUCTUKAL    BOTANY.  [105,106. 

such  a  coat  may  also   be  lanuginose,  woolly ;    tomen- 
tose,  matted  like  felt ;   or  floccose,  in  soft,  fleecy  tufts. 

313.  Thinly  scattered  hairs  render  the  surface  hir- 
sute when  they  are  long ;  pilose  when  short  and  soft ; 
hispid  when  short  and  stiff.    The  surface  will  be  setose 
when  beset  with  bristly  hairs  called  setce  ;  and  spinose 
when  beset  with   spines,   as  in  the  Thistle  and  Horse- 
nettle.     Leaves  may  also  be  armed  with  stinging  hairs 
which  are  sharp  and  tubular,  containing  a  poisonous 
fluid,  as  in  Nettles  and  Jatropha  stimulans  (503). 

314.  A  pruinose  surface  is  covered  with  a  bluish- 
white  waxy  powder,  called  bloom,  as  in  the  Cabbage ; 
and   a  punctate  leaf   is  dotted  with  colored  points  or 
pellucid  glands. 

315.  In    texture    leaves    may   be    membranous,  or 
coriaceous  (leathery),  or  succulent  (fleshy),  or  scarious 
(dry),  rugose   (wrinkled),  etc.,  which  terms  need  only 
to  be  mentioned. 

316.  Double    terms. —The   modifications   of    leaves  are  almost  endless. 
Many  other  terms  are  defined  in  the  glossary,  yet  it  will  often  be  found  neces- 
sary in  the  exact  description  of  a  plant  to  combine  two  or  more  of  the  terms 
defined  in  order  to  express  some  intermediate  figure  or  quality ;   thus  ovate- 
lanceolate,  signifying  a  form  between  ovate  and  lanceolate,  etc. 

317.  The  Latin  preposition  sub   (under)  prefixed  to   a   descriptive   term 
denotes  the  quality  which  the  term  expresses,  in  a  lower  degree,  as  subsessile, 
nearly  sessile,  subserrate,  somewhat  serrate. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

TRANSFORMATIONS    OF    THE    LEAF. 

318.  Hitherto  we  have  considered  the  leaf  as  foli- 
age merely  —  constituted  the  fit  organ  of  aeration  by 
its  large  expansion  of  surface.  This  is  indeed  the 
chief,  but  not  the  only  aspect  in  which  it  is  to  be 
viewed-  The  leaf  is  a  typical  form ;  that  is,  a  type,  or 


106,107.]  TRANSFORMATIONS    OF    THE    LEAF.  125 

an  IDEA  of  the  Divine  Architect,  whence  is  derived 
the  form  of  every  other  appendage  of  the  plant.  To 
trace  out  this  idea  in  all  the  disguises  under  which  it 
lurks,  is  one  of  the  first  aims  of  the  botanist.  Several 
of  these  forms  of  disguise  have  already  been  noticed 
—  for  example : 

319.  The  scales  which  clothe  the  various  forms  of 
scale-bearing  stems  are  leaves,  or  more  usually  petioles, 
reduced  and  distorted,  perhaps  by  the   straitened  cir- 
cumstances of  their  underground  growth.      The  scales 
of  corms   and  rhizomes  are   mostly  mere  membranes, 
while  those  of  the  bulb  are  fleshy,  serving  as  deposi- 
tories of  food  for  the  future  use  of  the  plant.      That 
these  scales  are  leaves  is  evident  —  1st,  from  their  po- 
sition at  the  nodes  of  the  stem ;   2d,  from  their  occa- 
sional   development    into    true    leaves.      Of   the    same 
nature  are  the  brown  scales  of  Winter  buds. 

320.  The    cotyledons    of   seeds    or   seed-lobes    are 
readily  recognized  as  leaves,  especially  when  they  arise 
above-ground  in   germination,  and  form   the  first  pair 
upon  the  young  plant ;  as  in  the  Beechnut  and  Squash 
seed.     Their  deformity  is  due  to  the  starchy  deposits 
with  which  they  are  crammed  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  embryo  when  germinating,  and  also  to  the  way  in 
which  they  are  packed  in  the  seed. 

321.  Phyllodia   are  certain  leaf-forms,  consisting  of 
petioles  excessively  compressed,  or  expanded  vertically 
into  margins,  while  the   true   lamina  is  partly  or  en- 
tirely   suppressed.     Fine    examples    are    seen    in    our 
greenhouse    Acacias    from    Australia.     Their    vertical 
or  edgewise   position   readily  distinguishes  them  from 
true  leaves. 

322.  Ascidia,    or  pitchers,  are  surprising  forms  of 


126  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [107,108. 

leaves,  expressly  contrived,  as  if  by  art,  for  holding 
water.  The  pitchers  of  Sarracenia,  whose  several  spe- 
cies are  common  in  bogs  North  and  South,  are  evi- 
dently formed  by  the  blending  of  the  involute  margins 
of  the  broadly  winged  petioles,  so  as  to  form  a  com- 
plete vase.  The  broad  expansion  which  appears  at  the 
top  may  be  regarded  as  the  lamina.  These  pitchers 
contain  water,  in  which  insects  are  drowned,  being 


Ascidia.—391,  Nepenthes.     392,  Sarracenia  psittacina.     393,  S.  purpurea.      394,  S.  Gronovii,  /?.  Drum- 
mondil.    395,  Acacia  heterophylla— its  phyllodia. 

prevented  from  escaping  by  the  deflexed  hairs  at  the 
mouth.  Other  pitcher-bearing  plants  are  equally  curi- 
ous ;  as  Darlingtonia  of  California,  Nepenthes  and 
Dischidia  of  the  East  Indies.  In  Dionsea  of  North 
Carolina,  the  leaves  are  transformed  to  spiny,  snapping 
fly-traps ! 

323.  Many  weak-stemmed  water-plants  are  fur- 
nished with  Air-bladders,  or  little  sacks  filled  with  air 
to  buoy  them  up  near  to  the  surface.  Such  are  the 
bladders  of  the  common  Bladderwort,  formed  from  the 
leaf-lobes.  In  the  Horned-bladderwort,  the  floats  are 


108,109.]  TRANSFORMATIONS    OF    THE    LEAF.  127 

made  of  the  six  upper  inflated  petioles  lying  upon 
the  surface  of  the  water  like  a  wheel-shaped  raft 
and  sustaining  the  flower  upon  its  own  elevated 
stalk. 

324.  The  Tendril  is  a  thread-like,  coiling  append- 
age, furnished  to  certain  weak-stemmed  plants  as  their 
means  of  support  in  place.  Its  first  growth  is  straight, 
and  it  remains  so  until  it  reaches  some  object,  when 
it  immediately  coils  itself  about  it,  and  thus  acquires  a 
firm  though  elastic  hold.  This  beautiful  appendage  is 
finely  exemplified  in  the  Cucurbitaceae  and  Grape, 

396 

if  vuufa    fr^^r^L&^^m //i  ^ 

398 


C96,  Leaf  of  Greenbrier,  with  tendrils  in  place  of  stipules.    397,  Leaf  ot  Everlasting  Pea— tendrils  at  end 
of  rachis.    398,  Leaf  of  Gloriosa— apex  ends  in  a  tendril.    399,  Air-bladder  of  Horn  Pondweed. 

above  cited ;  also  in  many  species  of  the  Pea  tribe 
(Leguminosse),  where  it  is  appended  to  the  leaves.  It 
is  not  a  new  organ,  but  some  old  one  transformed  and 
adapted  to  a  new  purpose.  In  Gloriosa  superba,  the 
midvein  of  the  leaf  is  prolonged  beyond  the  blade  into 
a  coiling  tendril.  In  the  Pea,  Vetch,  etc.,  the  tendrils 
represent  the  attenuated  leaf-blades  themselves.  Again, 
the  entire  leaf  sometimes  becomes  a  tendril  in  Lathy- 
rus,  while  the  stipules  act  as  leaves. 

325.  The  petiole  of  the  leaf  of  Clematis,  otherwise 
unchanged,  coils  like  a  tendril  for  the  support  of  the 
vine.  In  the  Greenbrier,  the  stipules  are  changed  to 
tendrils,  which  thus  arise  in  pairs  from  the  base  of 
the  petioles.  So  probably  in  the  Gourd. 


128  STRUCTURAL    BOTANY.  [109,110. 

326.  But  the  tendrils  of  the  Grape  vine  are  of  a  different  nature.    From 
their  position  opposite  the  leaves,  and  the  tubercles  occasionally  seen  upon 
them,  representing  flower-buds,  they  are   inferred  to  be  abortive,  or  trans- 
formed flower-stalks. 

327.  Many  plants  are  armed,  as  if  for  self-defense 
with  hard,  sharp-pointed,  woody  processes,  called  spines 
or    thorns.      Those    which    are    properly    called    spines 
originate  from  leaves.      In  Berberis  the  spines  are  evi- 
dently transformed  leaves,  as  the  same  plant  exhibits 


402  403 

Thorns— 400,  Crataegus  parvifolia  (thorns  axillary).    401,  Honey -locust.    402,    Common  Locust.    403,  Ber- 
beris— a,  a,  its  thorns. 

leaves  in  every  stage  of  the  metamorphosis.  In  Goafs- 
thorn  (Astragalus  tragacanthus)  of  S.  Europe,  the  pet- 
ioles change  to  spines  after  the  leaflets  fall  off.  In 
the  Locust  (Robinia),  there  is  a  pair  of  spines  at  the 
base  of  the  petiole,  in  place  of  stipules. 

328.  Thorns  originate  from  axillary  buds,  and  are  abortive  branches.  This 
is  evident  from  their  position  in  the  Hawthorn  and  Osage-orange.  The  Apple 
and  Pear  tree  in  their  wild  state  produce  thorns,  but  by  cultivation  become 
thornless ;  that  is,  the  axillary  buds,  through  better  tillage,  develop  branches 
instead  of  thorns.  The  terrible  branching  thorns  of  the  Honey-locust  originate 
just  above  the  axil,  from  accessory  buds.  Prickles  differ  from  either  spines  or 
thorns,  growing  from  the  epidermis  upon  stems  of  leaves,  at  no  determinate 
point,  and  consisting  of  hardened  cellular  tissues,  as  in  the  Rose,  Bramble. 


110,111.]  METAMORPHOSIS    OF    THE    FLOWER.  129 

329.  By  a  more  gentle  transformation,  leaves  pass 
into  Bracts,  which  are  those  smaller,  reduced  leaf- 
forms  situated  near  and  among  the  flowers.  So  grad- 
ual is  the  transition  from  leaves  to  bracts  —  in  the 
Peony,  e.  g.  —  that  no  absolute  limits  can  be  assigned. 
Equally  gradual  is  the  transition  from  bracts  to  sepals 
of  the  flower  —  affording  a  beautiful  illustration  of  the 
doctrine  of  metamorphosis  (§  330,  etc.).  Bracts  will 
be  further  considered  under  the  head  of  Inflorescence. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

METAMORPHOSIS    OF    THE    FLOWER. 

330.  It  has  already  been  announced  (§  37)  that  a 
flower    is    a    metamorphosed,    that    is,    a    transformed 
branch.      No  new  principle  or  element  was  devised  to 
meet  this  new  necessity  in  the  life  of  the  plant,  viz., 
the  perpetuation   of  its  kind ;    but  the  leaf,  that  same 
protean    form    which    we    have     already    detected    in 
shapes  so  numerous  and  diverse,  THE  LEAF,  is  yet  once 
more  in  nature's   hand   molded  into  a  series  of  forms 
of  superior  elegance,  touched  with  colors  more  brilliant, 
and  adapted  to  a  higher  sphere  as  the  organs  of  repro- 
duction. 

331.  Proofs  of  this  doctrine  appear  on  every  hand, 
both  in  the  natural  and  in  the  artificial  development 
of  plants.    We  mention  a  few  instances.     The  thought- 
ful student  will  observe  many  more. 

332.  In  most  flowers,   as   in   the  Poppy,  very  little 
evidence  of  the  metamorphosis  appears,  simply  because 
it   has  been   so   complete.      Its  sepals,  petals,  stamens, 
and  pistils — how  unlike  I    Can  these  be  of  one  and  the 


130 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[111. 


same  element  ?  Look  again.  Here  is  a  double  flower, 
a  Poppy  of  the  gardens,  artificially  developed  ;  its 
slender  white  stamens  have  indeed  expanded  into 
broad  red  petals  ! 

333.  The  argument  begins  with  the  sepals.  In  the 
Rose  and  Paeony,  and  in  most  flowers,  the  sepals  have 
all  the  characteristics  of  leaves  —  color,  form,  venation, 
etc.  The  transition  from  leaves  to  bracts  and  from 
bracts  to  sepals  is  so  gradual  as  to  place  their  identity 


406 


404 


404,  Papaver  (poppy)  —  s,  stamens;  p,  stigmas.    405,  sepaL    406,'Petal  —  all  very  different.    407  to  414, 
Petals  of  the  Water-lily  (Nymphaea)  gradually  passing  into  stamens. 

beyond  doubt.  Again,  in  Calicanthus,  the  sepals  pass 
by  insensible  gradations  into  petals;  and  in  the  Lilies 
these  two  organs  are  almost  identical.  Hence,  if  the 
sepals  are  leaves,  the  petals  are  leaves  also.  In  respect 
to  the  nature  of  the  stamens,  the  Water-lily  is  partic- 
ularly instructive.  Here  we  see  a  perfect  gradation 
of  forms  from  stamens  to  petals,  and  thence  to  sepals, 
where,  half-way  between  the  two  former,  we  find  a 
narrow  petal  tipped  with  the  semblance  of  an  anther 
(410).  Finally,  cases  of  close  resemblance  between 
stamen  and  pistil,  so  unlike  in  the  Poppy,  are  not 
wanting.  For  example,  the  Tulip-tree. 

334.  Teratology.  —  Cases  in  ABTIFIOIAL  DEVELOPMENT  where  organs  of  one 
kind  are  converted  into  those  of  another  kind  by  cultivation,  afford  undeni- 
able evidence  of  the  doctrine  in  question—  the  homology  of  all  the  floral  organs 
with  each  other  and  with  the  leaf.  Such  cases  are  frequent  in  the  garden,  and, 


Ill,  112.] 


METAMORPHOSIS    OF    THE    FLOWER. 


131 


however  much  admired,  they  are  monstrous,  because  unnatural.  In  all  double 
flowers,  as  Hose,  Peeony,  Camellia,  the  stamens  have  been  reconverted  into 
petals,  either  wholly  or  partially,  some  yet  remaining  in  every  conceivable 
stage  of  the  transition.  In  the  double  Buttercup  i'416)  the  pistils  as  well  as 
stamens  revert  to  petals,  and  in  the  garden  Cherry,  Flowering  Almond,  a  pair 
of  green  leaves  occupy  the  place  of  the  pistils.  By  still  further  changes  all 
parts  of  the  flower  manifest  their  foliage  affinities,  and  the  entire  flower-bud, 
after  having  given  clear  indications  of  its  floral  character,  is  at  last  developed 
into  a  leafy  branch  (417).  Further  evidence  of  this  view  will  appear  in  the  — 


417 


415,  Ranunculus  acris  ;  a  single  flower.     416,  R.  acris,  (3.  plena,  a  double  flower.     417,  Epacris  impressa, 
the  flowers  changing  to  leafy  branches  (Lindley). 

335.  ^Estivation  of  the  flower-bud.  —  This  term 
(from  cestivus,  of  summer)  refers  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  floral  envelopes  while  yet  in  the  bud.  It  is  an 
important  subject,  since  in  general  the  same  mode 
of  aestivation  regularly  characterizes  whole  tribes  or 
orders.  It  is  to  the  flower-bud  what  vernation  (vernus, 
spring)  is  to  the  leaf-bud.  The  various  modes  of  aesti- 
vation are  best  observed  in  sections  of  the  bud  made 
by  cutting  it  through  horizontally  when  just  ready  to 
open.  From  such  sections  our  diagrams  are  copied. 


132 


STRUCTUKAL    BOTANY. 


[112, 113. 


336.  Separately    considered,    we    find    each    organ 
here  folded  in  ways  similar  to  those  of  the  leaf-bud  ; 
that  is,  the  sepal  or  the  petal  may  be  convolute,  invo- 
lute, revolute,  etc.,  terms  already  defined.      Collectively 
considered,  the  aestivation  of  the  flower  occurs  in  four 
general  modes  with  their  variations  —  the  valvate,  the 
contorted,  imbricate,  and  plicate. 

337.  In  valvate  aestivation  the  pieces  meet  by  their 
margins  without  any  overlapping;   as  in  the  sepals  of 
the    Mallow,  petals  of  Hydrangea,  valves  of  a  capsule. 


418 


^\/'   425  -^-^  424 

418-426,  Modes  of  aestivation.    424,  Petals  of  the  Wall-flower. 

The  following  varieties  of  the  valvate  .occur :  Indupli- 
cate,  where  each  piece  is  involute  —  i.e.,  has  its  two 
margins  bent  or  rolled  inward,  as  in  Clematis ;  or  redu- 
plicate, when  each  piece  is  revolute  —  having  its  mar- 
gins bent  or  rolled  outward,  as  in  the  sepals  of  Althea. 

338.  Contorted  aestivation  is  where  each  piece  over- 
laps its  neighbor,  all  in  the  same  direction,  appearing 
as  if  twisted  together,  as  in  Phlox,  Flax,  Oleander  (421). 

339.  Imbricated  aestivation  (imbrex,  a  tile)  is  a  term 
restricted  to  those  modes  in  which  one  or  more  of  the 
petals    or    sepals    is    wholly    outside,    overlapping    two 
others  by  both  its  margins.      This  kind  of  aestivation 


113,  114.] 


METAMORPHOSIS    OF    THE    FLOWER. 


133 


naturally  results  from  the  spiral  arrangements  so  com- 
mon in  phyllotaxy,  while  the  valvate  and  contorted 
seem  identified  with  the  opposite  or  whorled  arrange- 
ment. The  principal  varieties  are  the  following  :  The 
Quincuncial,  consisting  of  five  leaves,  two  of  which 
are  wholly  without,  two  wholly  within,  and  one  partly 
both,  or  one  margin  out,  the  other  in,  as  in  the  Rose 
family  (422).  This  accompanies  the  two  fifths  cycle  in 
phyllotaxy,  and  corresponds  precisely  with  it,  each 
quincunx  being  in  fact  a  cycle  with  its  internodes 


t) 


427 


426 


Diagrams  of  flowers  (as  seen  by  cross-sections).— 426,  Jeffersonia  diphylla — o,  ovary  ;  s,  stamens  ;  d,  inner 
row  of  petals,  aestivation  triquetrous  ;  b,  outer  row  of  petals,  aestivation  contorted;  c,  sepals,  aestivation 
quincuncial.  427,  Lily.  428,  Strawberry.  429,  Mustard.  The  pupil  will  designate  modes  of  aestivation. 

suppressed.  (Fig.  300,  §  266.)  The  Triquetrous,  con- 
sisting of  three  leaves  in  each  set,  one  of  which  is  out- 
side, one  inside,  and  the  third  partly  both,  as  in  Tulip, 
Erythronium,  agreeing  with  the  two  thirds,  or  Alder 
Cycle  (§  265).  The  Convolute,  when  each  leaf  wholly 
involves  all  that  are  within  it,  as  do  the  petals  of  Mag- 
nolia ;  and  lastly,  the  Vexillary,  when  one  piece  larger 
than  the  rest  is  folded  over  them,  as  in  Pea  (425). 

340.  Plicate  or  folded  aestivation  occurs  in  tubular 
or  monopetalous  flowers,  and  has  many  varieties,  of 
which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  supervolute,  where 
the  projecting  folds  all  turn  obliquely  in  the  same 
direction,  as  in  the  Morning-glory,  Thorn-apple. 

Different  modes  of  aestivation  may  occur  in  the 
different  whorls  of  the  same  flower. 


134  STRUCTURAL   BOTANY.  [114,115. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 

INFLORESCENCE. 

341.  Inflorescence  is  a  term  denoting  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  flowers  and  their  position  upon  the  plant. 

All  the  buds  of  a  plant  are  supposed  to  be  originally  of  one  and  the  same 
nature,  looking  to  the  production  of  vegetative  organs  only.  But  at  a  certain 
period,  a  portion  of  the  buds  of  the  living  plant,  by  an  unerring  instinct  little 
understood,  are  converted  from  their  ordinary  intention  into  flower-buds,  as 
stated  and  illustrated  in  the  foregoing  Chapter.  The  flower-bud  is  incapable 
of  extension.  While  the  leaf -bud  may  unfold  leaf  after  leaf,  and  node  after 
node,  to  an  indefinite  extent,  the  flower-bud  blooms,  dies,  and  arrests  forever 
the  extension  of  the  axis  which  bore  it. 

342.  In  position  and  arrangement,  flower-buds  can 
not  differ  from  leaf-buds,  and  both   are  settled  by  the 
same  unerring  law  which  determines  the  arrangement 
of  the   leaves.     Accordingly,  the  flower-bud  is  always 
found  either  terminal  or  axillary.     In  either  case,  a 
single    bud    may   develop  either  a  compound  inflores- 
cence, consisting  of  several  flowers  with  their  stalks 
and  bracts,  or  a  solitary  inflorescence,  consisting  of  a 
single  flower. 

343.  The  Peduncle  is  the  flower-stalk.      It  bears  no 
leaves,  or  at  least  only  such  as  are  reduced  in  size  and 
changed   in   form,    called   bracts.      If   the   peduncle    is 
wanting,  the   flower  is   said  to  be  sessile.     The  simple 
peduncle  bears  a  single  flower  ;  but  if  the  peduncle  be 
divided  into  branches,  it  bears  several  flowers,  and  the 
final  divisions,  bearing  each  a  single  flower,  are   called 
pedicels.     The    main    stem    or    axis    of    a    compound 
peduncle  is  called  the  rachis. 

344.  The    Scape    is    a    flower-stalk    which    springs 
from  a  subterranean  stem,  in  such  plants  as  are  called 


115,  116.]  INFLORESCENCE.  135 

stemless,  or  acaulescent ;  as  the  Primrose,  Tulip,  Blood- 
root.  Like  the  peduncle,  it  is  leafless  or  with  bracts 
only,  and  may  be  either  simple  or  branched.  The 
flower-stalk,  whether  peduncle,  scape,  or  pedicel,  always 
terminates  in  the  torus  (§  57). 


432 


Bracts  (b,  6,  &).— 430,  Cornus  Canadensis,  with  an  involucre  of  four  colored  bracts.    431,  Hepatica  triloba, 
with  an  involucre  of  three  green  bracts.    432,  Calla  palustris,  with  a  colored  spathe  of  one  bract. 

345.  Bracts.  —  The    branches    of    the  inflorescence 
arise   from  the  axils  of  reduced   leaves,  called  bracts. 
Those  leaves,  still  smaller,  growing  upon  the  pedicels, 
are  called  bractlets.      Bracts  are  usually  simple  in  out- 
line and  smaller  than  the  leaf,  often  gradually  dimin- 
ishing to  mere  points,  as  in  Aster,  or  even  totally  sup- 
pressed, as  in  the  Cruciferse.      Often  they  are  colored, 
sometimes    brilliantly,  as  in  Painted-cup.      Sometimes 
they    are    scale-like,    and    again    they    are    evanescent 
membranes. 

346.  The  Spathe  is  a  large  bract  formed  in  some  of 
the  Monocotyledons,  enveloping  the  inflorescence,  and 
often  colored,  as  in  Arum,  Calla ;   or  membranous,   as 
in  Onion  and  Daffodil. 

347.  Bracts  also  constitute  an  Involucre  when  they 
are    collected    into    a  whorl    or    spiral  group.     In  the 


t, 


136 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANT. 


[116,  117. 


Phlox,  Dodecatheon,  and  generally,  the  involucre  is 
green,  but  sometimes  colored  and  petaloid,  as  in  Dog- 
wood and  Euphorbia.  Situated  at  the  base  of  a  com- 
pound umbel,  it  is  called  a  general  involucre  ;  at  the 
base  of  a  partial  umbel  it  is  a  partial  involucre  or 
involucel,  both  of  which  are  seen  in  the  Umbelliferse. 


433,  Helianthus  grosse-serratus — I,  involucre  ;  r,  rays,  or  ligulate  flowers.  434,  One  of  the  disk-flowers 
with  its  chaff-scale  (bract).  435,  Acorn  of  Moss-cup  Oak  (Q.  macrophylla).  436,  Poa  pratensis— /,  spikelet 
entire  ;  g,  glumes  separated  ;  e,  a  flower  separated,  displaying  the  two  pales,  three  stamens,  and  two  styles. 

348.  In    the    Compositee,   where    the    flowers    are 
crowded  upon  a  common  torus,  forming  what  is  called 
a  compound  flower,  an  involucre   composed   of   many 
imbricated  scales   (bracts)   surrounds  them  as  a  calyx 
surrounds   a  simple  flower.      The  chaff  also  upon  the 
torus  are  bracts  to  which  each  floret  is  axillary  (434). 

349.  In  the  Grasses,  the  bracts  subsist  under  the 
general  name  of  chaff.     At  the  base   of  each  spikelet 
(436)  of  flowers  we  find  two  bracts  —  the  Glumes.    At 
the   base   of  each   separate   flower  in  the  spikelet  are 
also  two  bractlets — the  Pales  —  enveloping  as  a  calyx 
the  three  stamens  and  two  styles  (c). 

350.  The  cup  of  the  Acorn  is  another  example  of 
involucre,  composed  of  many  scale-like  bractlets.      So, 
also,  perhaps  the  burr  of  the  Chestnut,  etc. 


117, 118.]  INFLORESCENCE.  137 

351.  The   forms   of    inflorescence    are    exceedingly 
various,    but   may   all    be   referred   to   two    classes,   as 
already    indicated  —  the    axillary,     in    which    all    the 
flowers    arise    from    axillary   buds ;    the    terminal,    in 
which  all  the  flower-buds  are  terminal. 

352.  Axillary  inflorescence  is   called  indefinite,  be- 
cause  the  axis,  being   terminated  by  a   leaf-bud,   con- 
tinues to  grow  on  indefinitely,  developing  bracts  with 
their    axillary    flowers    as  it  grows.      It  is  also  called 
centripetal,  because  in  the  order  of  time  the  blossom- 
ing commences  with  the   circumference   (or    base)    of 
the  inflorescence,    and  proceeds  toward  the  central  or 
terminal  bud,  as  in  Hawthorn  or  Mustard. 

353.  Terminal    inflorescence    is    definite,    implying 
that  the  growth  of  the  axis  as  well  as  of  each  branch 
is  definitely  arrested   by  a  flower.     It  is  also  centrifu- 
gal, because  the  blossoming  commences  with  the  cen- 
tral flower  and  proceeds  in  order  to  the  circumference, 
as  in  the  Sweet- William,  Elder,  Hydrangea. 

354.  Both  kinds  of  inflorescence  are  occasionally  combined  in  the  same 
plant,  where  the  general  system  may  be  -distinguished  from  the  partial  clusters 
which  compose  it.     Thus  in  the  Compositae,  while  the  florets  of  each  head 
open  centripetally,  the  general  inflorescence  is  centrifugal,  that  is,  the  termi- 
nal head  is  developed  before  the  lateral  ones.    But  in  the  Labiatee  the  partial 
clusters  (verticillasters)  open  centrifugally,  while  the  general  inflorescence  is 
indefinite,  proceeding  from  the  base  upward. 


CHAPTER 

SPECIAL    FORMS    OF   INFLORESCENCE. 

355.     Of   centripetal    or  axillary  inflorescence    the 

principal  varieties  are :  the  spike,  spadix,  catkin,  raceme, 
corymb,  umbel,  panicle,  thyrse,  and  head.  The  spike 
is  a  long  rachis  with  sessile  flowers  either  scattered, 


138 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[118. 


clustered,    or    crowded    upon  it,   as  Plantain,  Mullein, 
Vervain.     The  so-called  spikes  of  the  Grasses  are  com* 


435-a,  Spiranthes  cernua— flowers  in  a  twisted  spike.    436-a,  Orontium  aquatic um— flowers  on  a  naked 
spadix.     437,  Betula  lenta— flowers  in  aments. 

pound  spikes  or  spike-like  panicles,  bearing  little  spikes 
or  spikelets  in  place  of  single  flowers  (440). 


442        440  439 

438,  Andromeda  racemosa— flowers  in  a  secund  raceme.  439,  Verbascum  Blattaria— raceme.  440,  Lo- 
lium  perenne— a  compound  spike  or  a  spike  of  spikelets.  441,  Dipsacus  sylvestris— head  with  an  involucre 
of  leaves.  442,  Qsmorhiza  longistylis— a  compound  umbel.  443,  Its  fruit. 


119.] 


SPECIAL    FORMS    OF    INFLORESCENCE. 


139 


356.  The    spadix    is    a    thick,    fleshy  rachis,  with 
flowers  closely  sessile  or  imbedded  on  it,  and  usually 
with  a  spathe,  as   in  Calla  (432),  or  without  it,  as  in 
Golden-club  (436). 

357.  The    catkin  or  ament  is    a  slender,  pendent 
spike  with   scaly  bracts  subtending  the   naked,  sessile 
flowers,    all    caducous    (falling)    together,   as  in  Birch, 
Beech,  Oak,  Willow. 

358.  The  raceme  is  a  rachis  bearing  its  flowers  on 
distinct,  simple  pedicels.      It  may  be  erect,  as  in  Hya- 
cinth,   Pyrola  ;    or    pendulous,    as    in    Currant,    Black- 
berry.    The  corymb  differs  from  the  raceme  in  having 
the   lower  pedicels   lengthened  so  as  to  elevate  all  the 
flowers  to  about  the  same  level.      The  corymb  often 
becomes    compound    by    the    branching    of    its    lower 
pedicels,  as  in  Yarrow. 


444  445 

444.  Staphylea  trifolia — a  pendulous,  paniculate  cyme.    445,  Catalpa — a  panicle. 

359.  An  umbel  consists  of  several  pedicels  of  about 
equal  length  radiating  from  the  same  point  —  the  top 
of  the  common  peduncle,  as  Milk-weed,  Onion.  When 


140 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[119, 120. 


the  pedicels  of  an  umbel  become  themselves  umbels, 
as  in  Caraway  and  most  of  the  Umbelliferae,  a  com- 
pound umbel  is  produced.  Such  secondary  umbels  are 
called  umbelletSj  and  the  primary  pedicels,  rays. 

360.  The    panicle    is    a    compound    inflorescence 
formed  by  the   irregular  branching  of  the  pedicels  of 
the  raceme,  as  in  Oats,  Spear-grass,  Catalpa.    A  thyrse 
is  a  sort  of  compact,  oblong,  or  pyramidal  panicle,  as 
in  Lilac,  Grape. 

361.  A    head    or  capitulum  is    a    sort  of    reduced 
umbel,  having  the  flowers 

all  sessile  upon  the  top  of 
the  peduncle,  as  in  the 
Button-bush,  Clover.  But 
the  more  common  exam- 
ples of  the  capitulum  are 
seen  in  the  Composites, 
where  the  summit  of  the 
peduncle,  that  is,  the  recep- 
tacle, is  dilated,  bearing  the 
sessile  flowers  above,  and 
scale-like  bracts  around,  as 

-i 
an    inVOlUCre. 

o  n  n.         mi  --L     7 

362.      The     CapltUl 

~  .  ,  P, 

the  Compositse  is  often 
called  a  compound  flower  from  its  resemblance,  the  in- 
volucre answering  to  a  calyx,  the  rays  to  the  corolla. 
The  flowers  are  called  florets  —  those  of  the  outer  cir- 
cle, florets  of  the  ray,  generally  differing  in  form  from 
those  of  the  central  portions,  the  florets  of  the  disk. 

363.  Of  terminal  inflorescence  the  following  varie- 
ties are  described  :  cyme,  fascicle  (verticillaster),  and 
glomerule. 


446 


446)  Vernonia  fasciculatar-flower8  in  a  discoid 

head  with  an  imbricated  involucre.    447,  A  single 
flower  remaining  on  the  receptacle.    448,  A  fruit 
-C    crowned  with  the  pappus.    449,  Mulgedium—  a  head. 
OI    460,  A  single  flower  remaining  on  the  receptacle. 
>  -A.  fruit  with  pappus. 


120,  121.] 


SPECIAL    FORMS    OF    INFLORESCENCE. 


141 


364.  Cyme  is  a  general  term  denoting  any  inflores- 
cence with  centrifugal  evolutions,  but  is  properly  ap- 
plied to  that  level-topped  or  fastigiate  form  which 


454 


Diagram  (452)  of  cyme  flowers  numbered  in  the  order  of  their  development— 453,  Cyme  fastigiate.    454, 
Cyme  half  developed — a  scorpoid  raceme. 

resembles  the  corymb,  as  in  the  Elder.  If  it  is  loosely 
spreading,  not  fastigiate,  it  is  called  a  cymous  panicle, 
as  in  the  Chickweed,  Spergula,  etc.  If  it  be  rounded, 
as  in  the  Snowball,  it  is  a  globose  cyme. 


455  456 

455,  Myosotis  palustris— scorpioid  racemes.    456,  Stellaria  media— a  regular  cyme. 

365.  A  scorpioid  cyme,  as  seen  in  the  Sundew, 
Sedum,  and  Borrage  family,  is  a  kind  of  coiled  raceme, 
unrolling  as  it  blossoms.  It  is  understood  to  be  a  half- 
developed  cyme,  as  illustrated  in  the  cut  (454).  The 
fascicle  is  a  modification  of  the  cyme,  with  crowded 


142 


STRUCTURAL    BOTANY. 


[121, 122. 


and  nearly  sessile  flowers,  as  in  Sweet- William  (Dian- 
thus). 

366.  Glomerule,  an  axillary  tufted  cluster,  with  a 
centrifugal  evolution,  frequent  in  the  Labiatse,  etc. 
When  such  occur  in  the  axils  of  opposite  leaves  and 
meet  around  the  stem,  each  pair  constitutes  a  verticil- 
laster  or  verticil,  as  in  Catmint,  Hoarhound. 


457 


367.  The  above  diagrams  show  the  mutual  relations  of  the  several  forms 
of  centripetal  inflorescence  —  how  they  are  graduated  from  the  spike  (457)  to 
the  head  (464).  Thus  the  spike  (457)  +  the  pedicels  =  raceme  (458) ;  the  raceme 
with  the  lower  pedicels  lengthened  =  corymb  (459) ;  the  corymb  —  the  rachis  = 
umbel  (460) ;  the  umbel  —  pedicels  =  head  (464),  etc. 

(For  the  phenomena  of  Mowering,  Coloring,  the  Moral  Calendar,  the 
Floral  Clock,  see  the  Class  Book  of  Botany,  pp.  75-77.) 


PART   SECOND. 
PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


CHAPTER    I. 

VEGETABLE    HISTOLOGY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

368.  The  vegetable  cell  is  the  foundation  of  all 
plant  structure,  and  when  complete  is  a  sac  or  bag-like 
body  containing  a  semi-fluid  substance 
called  Protoplasm.  The  cell -wall  in- 
creases by  expansion.  Spaces  (vacuoles)  a 

appear  among 
the  particles 
of  protoplasm, 
which  are  occu- 
pied by  a  watery 
substance  called  „„„ 

-1-1  T  c,  c,  protoplasm  mass  sep- 

Ceil-Sap.    In  SOme    arated  from  the  cell-wall 

*m     part  of  the  cell  b< 

a  spot  appears  where  the 
granules  of  Protoplasm  are 
crowded  together,  forming  a 


465 
465,   Mature    cell   of 


466,  Section  of  pith-cell  of  Taxodium  ;  a,  v.i-.plpi-.q  TTUp         ppll 

nucleus  ;   &,  nucleolus ;  c,  «,  protoplasm  sac  Z  >US< 

contracted  toward  the  wall,  from  which  it  has  pOrnTVJpfp       onrq      fhyiq 

been  separated  by  reagents  ;  p,  cell-sap  In  a  C  tG»     ai] 

XTS^tT^iSniSS:!  i*  ^  organism  capable  of  ex- 

ellularspace'  ercising    vital    functions,    and 

possesses  the  ability  to  multiply  itself  or  produce  new 


144 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


cells.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  plant's  life,  the  Proto- 
plasm is  a  naked  mass,  but  it  very  soon  surrounds 
itself  with  a  wall,  as  in  Figs.  465  A 

and  466.  Inside  the  cell-wall  it 
arranges  itself  into  a  great  variety 
of  forms. 

In  Fig.  467,  A  shows  new  cells, 
with  the  protoplasm  evenly  distrib- 
uted, and  nuclei  forming,  k.  Fig. 
467,  B,  great  changes  have  taken 
place,  cell-sap  has  been  introduced, 
and  the  protoplasm  is  much  vacuo- 
lated,  and  appears  either  floating 
freely  in  the  cell-sap,  spread  along  the 
cell-wall,  or  otherwise  aggregated. 
In  Fig.  468,  A,  the  protoplasm  seems 
to  be  aggregating,  and  spots  or  vac- 
uoles  are  appearing  in  its  midst. 
Fig.  468,  B,  the  protoplasm  is  form- 
ing in  globular  masses  around  por- 
tions of  sap.  These  little  vesicles 
are  frequently  furnished  with  the 
green  coloring  matter  of  the  plant. 
Fig.  468,  (7,  highly  magnified  cell, 
in^which  the  protoplasm  has  re- 
treated from  the  cell-wall  under 


467 


.  £  ..  ii«  •  j       4^7,  -^'  ^ery  y°uns cells  from 

the  aCtlOn  OI  Weak  SUlphUriC  add  nearthetipoftherootofFritilla- 

ria  ;  B,  cells  from  a  part  a  little 

and  iodine.  higher  up  in  the  root;  s,  a,  s,  sap; 

Jc,  x,  y,  nuclei  and  nucleoli  form- 

369.   Protoplasm  is  complex  and  mg;  ?,  protoplasm, 
constantly  changing   in   its   constitution.     It   yields   to 
chemical    analysis  materials   similar   to   egg   albumen, 
and  is  the  living  substance  of  the  cell;  its  appearan< 
under  the  microscope  is  shown  in  Figs.  465-468, 


VEGETABLE    HISTOLOGY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


145 


The  chemical  substances  that  have  been  detected  in  Protoplasm  are  Oxygen, 
Hydrogen,  Carbon,  Nitrogen,  Sulphur,  Potassium,  Calcium,  Magnesium,  Iron,  Phosphorus, 
Chlorine,  and  frequently  Silicon  and  Sodium. 

The  relative  proportions  of  these  substances  differ  in  different  orders,  and 
are  not  constant  in  the  same  plant. 


370.  The  wall  of  the  cell 

(Fig.  466)  is  produced  by 
some  action  of  the  proto- 
plasm. When  first  formed 
it  is  very  thin,  soft,  and  uni- 
form in  thickness  ;  but  as  it 
grows  older,  it  is  thickened 
by  additional  coatings,  or 
strata,  upon  the  inner  sur- 
face ;  sometimes  of  uniform 
thickness,  but  more  fre- 

quently in  VeinS,   ringS,   SpOtS, 


468,  Forms  of  Protoplasm  ;  A  and  B,  cells 

_  .  1  _  from  the  stalk  of  Indian  Corn  :  C,  from  a  tuber 

Or    riQgeS,    lOrming    tile     lOUn-    of  Jerusalem  Artichoke  after  action  of  iodine  and 
.  .  sulphuric  acid  ;   h,  cell-wall  ;   k,  nucleus  ;  b,  nu- 

dation    for    the    tissues    and  cieoius;  P,  protoplasm. 
vessels  of  plants  hereafter  to  be  considered. 

371.  Cellulose  is  the   substance  of  which  the  cell- 
wall  is  formed,    It  yields  to  the  chemist  the  same  ele- 
ments   that    are    found    in    starch,    whose    formula    is 
C6  H,0  O5  ;    besides  these,   several  other  mineral  sub- 
stances are  present  in  minute  quantities. 

372.  Woody  material,  called  lignin,  is  deposited  or 
formed  upon  the  walls   of  some  cells,  by  which  they 
are  hardened  and  strengthened.    The  component  parts 
of  this  substance   are  not  accurately  known  ;  there  is 
reason   to   believe   they  vary  in   different  plants,   and 
even   in   different   parts  of    the   same  plant.      Mineral 
substances,  principally  silica  and  lime  compounds,  also 
thicken    the    cell-walls    and   increase    their    induration 
and  strength. 


146  PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 

373.  Chlorophyl.  —  In    the    living    cells    of    those 
parts  of  plants    exposed  to   sunlight,  granules  appear, 
resembling  protoplasm   grains    in    all    respects  except 
color.    These  minute  bodies  are  green,  and  furnish  the 
green    color    to    leaves    and    all    other    green  parts  of 
plants;  the   name   applied  to  these  granules  is  due  to 
their  color,   and   as  the   leaf  is  the  most  conspicuous 
green    part   of    the  plant,   the   term   Chlorophyl   (Leaf 
Green)   has   been    applied   to  this  green  color.      Some 
authors  have  called  chlorophyl    grains  stained  proto- 
plasm,   viewing    chlorophyl    as    the    stain,    and    the 
chlorophyl  granule  as  colored    protoplasm   (Figs.  466, 
467). 

374.  Starch    is   a    most    important    plant    product, 
and  is  formed  by  the  action  of  protoplasm  and  chloro- 
phyl   under    sunlight  ;    it   is    found    sparingly    in    the 
leaf,  and  when  more  than  enough  to  supply  the  plant's 
daily  wants  is   produced,  the  surplus  is  stored  up   in 
some   other  part  of    the  plant,    as    the    tuber    of   the 
Potato,    the    grains    of    Wheat,    and    other    cereals,  in 
which   form  it   is   utilized   for  animal  food.      Its  com- 
ponent   parts    are    identical    with    those    of    cellulose. 

Forms   of  starch-grains    are  shown  in 
Figs.    469-473.     The   form  of  starch- 
grains  is  very  various,  differing  in  dif- 
ferent plants,  and 
even  in  the  same 
parts  of  the  same 
plant.      Fig.    473, 

469,  Cells  of  Potato  containing  starch-grains.     470,  Starch  grains       A       /y     7)    ^     fr»    /7     flrP 
from  the  Potato.    471,  from  the  E.  Indian  Arrowroot.     472,  Starch    -0-)    "Tl  Yf  ;V*    u^   J/J   ' 
granules  from  W.  Indian  Arrowroot.  Starch-grainS  f  rOm 

a  grain  of  Indian   Corn.      Fig.   473,  B,  shows  starch- 
grains  from  a  grain  of  Wheat;    these  are  more  nearly 


VEGETABLE    HISTOLOGY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


147 


uniform  in  shape  and  size 
and  somewhat  lens-shaped. 

375.  Crystals  of  a  great 
variety  of  shape  are  found 
in  some  of  the  cells  of 
most  plants  of  the  higher 
orders  ;  the  most  simple  of 
these  forms  are  cubical  or 
prismatic ;  but  they  occur 
in  almost  every  variety  of 
polyhedral  form.  In  some 
orders  they  appear  in  slen- 
der needle-shaped  bodies 
called  Raphides.  They  usu- 
ally occur,  solitary  or  in 
masses,  in  the  cell  cavity, 
but  are  not  unfrequently 
found  in  the  cell -wall 
(Figs.  474,  475). 

Plant 


473,  A,  is  a  cell  from  the  endosperm  of  a  graia'of 
Indian  Corn,  crowded  with  starch-grains  ;  the  grains 
i -i  marked  a,  6,  c,  etc.,  to  g  are  also  from  the  interior  of 

LiltJ      a  grain  of  corn.     The  grains  marked  B  are  from  the 


residua    of    the    materials 

used  in  the  chemical  combinations  that  have  taken 

place  in  the  cell  under  the 
action  of  sunlight,  and  are 
usually  composed  of  lime 
carbonate  or  lime  oxalate. 
Other  calcic  combinations 
are,  however,  frequently 
present.  The  difficulties  at- 
tending the  separating  of 
plant  crystals  from  their 
474,  A,  Beet  ceiis  with  R  surroundings  have  thus  far 

stellate  masses  of  crystals  ;  B,  R,  inner  cells,  with  -j  -j         «i         •  m<-i-IV»1 /-«        •!-»-* 

raphides  escaping ;  C,  aleurone  crystal.  Tendered        it        impOSSlble        1H 


148 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


some  cases  to  determine  with  accuracy  their  chemical 
constituents. 

376.  Cell-sap  is  the  watery  fluid  in  the  cell  which 
suspends  the  food  and  working    material    taken    into 
the   cell   from   the    air   and   the 

soil  and  the  soluble    substances 
which    the   plant   produces,  and 
is  the  medium  by  which  food  is 
conveyed  throughout  the  plant's 
structure.    All  parts  of  the  active 
cell  are  filled  with  water ;  it  con- 
stitutes a  large  part  of  the  cellu- 
lose, and  forms  the  greater  part 
of  the  bulk  of  protoplasm.    Sugar 
is  a  prominent  sub- 
stance in   the    cell- 
sap,  both  cane  and 
grape.      Cane-sugar 

flhnnnHcj  in    thp    pplla  475,  4,  cross-section  of  oak-gall ;   d,  sclerenchymatons  cells  ; 

3    c,  outside  tissue,  with  oxalate  crystals  ,  e,  inner  tissue  containing 

of  Sugar  Cane,  Sugar  8tarch  and  resin'  * forms  of  calcium  oxalate  crystals' 
Maple,  Beet,  Sorghum,  Indian  Corn,  and  most  of  the 
higher  plants ;  while  grape-sugar  gives  sweetness  to 
grapes,  cherries,  figs,  and  gooseberries.  In  the  poma- 
ceous  and  drupe  fruits  both  kinds  are  present.  For  cell- 
sap  in  both  large  and  small  vacuoles,  see  Fig.  466,  p; 
Fig.  467,  B,  8,  8,  s. 

377.  New  cells,  to  which  the  enlargement  or  growth 
of  the  plant  is  due,  are  formed  in  one  of  the  three  fol- 
lowing typical  modes : 

378.  1,   Rejuvenescence. — In  this   method  of  pro- 
ducing new  cells,  the  entire  mass  of  the  protoplasm  is 
expelled  from   the  old  cell,    and,   when  set   free,   sur- 
rounds itself  with  a  wall,  thus  becoming  a  new  cell. 


VEGETABLE    HISTOLOGY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY.  149 

379.  #,  Conjugation.  —  New  cells  are  also  produced 
by  the  union  of  the  protoplasm  of  two  or  more  cells; 
the  contents  of  which  having  commingled,   the   com- 
bined mass   incloses  itself  with    a    cellulose   covering, 
and  becomes  a  new  cell. 

380.  3,  Fission  is  the  name  applied  to  the  mode  of 
cell  production  by  which   two   or   more   new  cells  are 
formed  out  of  one.      This  is  the  usual  mode,  and  may 
be  treated  under  three  heads. 

381.  a.  Fission  Proper. — A  young  complete  cell  (Figs. 
465,  466)  possesses  the  power  to  multiply.     The  most 
simple  case  of  this  process  is  the  division  of  the  cell 
into  two  equal,  or  nearly  equal,  parts.     The  protoplasm 
forms  two  nucleus-like   spots ;    a  stricture  then  com- 
mences  in  the  wall   between  the  spots,   and    the   cell 
seems  to  pinch  itself  into  two.     This  process  is  shown 
in  the  fission  of  Bacterium  cells  (Figs.  511,  512). 

In  most  cases  the  process  is  accompanied  by  a 
stricture  more  or  less  prominent ;  at  the  same  time 
an  equatorial  septum  appears  between  the  nuclear 
spots,  and  divides  the  old  cell  into  two  nearly  equal 
new  cells  (Fig.  476).  In  this  case  the  stricture  in  the 
cell-wall  is  barely  visible.  The  new  cells  round  up  and 
soon  become  sub-globular  in  form. 


476,  Phases  of  a  cell  undergoing  the  process  of  fission  ;  a,  complete  cell  with  drops  of  cell-sap  among 
the  protoplasm,  nucleus,  and  nucleolus ;  6,  same,  with  nucleus  and  nucleolus  divided  ;  c,  with  stricture 
and  wall  forming  across  between  the  nuclei;  <Z,  same,  with  the  septum  completed,  and  the  fission  accom- 
plished; two  separate  cells  have  been  formed  by  dividing  the  old  cell  into  two. 


150 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


The  process  of  cell  division  depends  first  upon  the  nucleus  which  forms  a 
spindle  of  radiating  fibrils  with  an  equatorial  disk.  A  middle  wall,  or  parti- 
tion, is  formed  at  the  disk,  whereby  two  distinct  cells  are  produced  (477). — 
MadosUe's  Elementary  Botany. 


477,  No.  1,  mature  cell ;  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8  show  the  changes  through  which  No.  1   passes  preparatory  to 
the  final  act  of  fission  ;  seen  completed  in  No.  9. 

382.  5,  Budding  is  another  form  of  plant  multipli- 
cation.    In   this  mode  the  plant  cell  puts  forth  a  pro- 
trusion which  enlarges  until   it  is  about 

the  size  of  the  old  cell,  when  a  partition 
wall  is  thrown  across  at  the  juncture, 
making  the  new  cell  complete  and  inde- 
pendent. In  Fig.  478  the  process  of  bud- 
ding is  shown  in  its  several  forms. 

383.  c.   Intra-cell    Formation.  —  Under  undergoing  the  process 

of  budding. 

this  head  are  treated  those  cases  in  which 
several  aggregations  appear  within  the  cell  and  the 
entire  mass  of  protoplasm  separates  into  two,  three,  or 
more  parts,  each  of  which,  either  at  the  time  the  divi-, 
sion  is  going  on  or  soon  after,  becomes  inclosed  in  a 
cellulose  envelope,  and  speedily  assumes  a  globular 
form,  as  an  independent  complete  cell. 


478 

478,  Yeast  plant,  Sac- 
charomyces  cerivesiae, 


VEGETABLE    HISTOLOGY    AHD    PHYSIOLOGY. 


151 


In  the  preparation  for  cell  division  nucleus-like  formations  usually  appear 
in  the  mother  cell.  The  whole  protoplasmic  body  breaks  up  into  two,  three, 
four,  or  more  parts,  and  each  quickly  takes  on  a  spher- 
ical form  (Fig.  479).  —  Sacks'1  Text-book  of  Botany. 

All  these  modes  of  cell  multiplica- 
tion and  formation  are  subject  to  great 
variation  ;  each  has  a  tendency  to  run 
into  one  of  the  others ;  the  last  is  espe- 
cially liable  to  vary  as  to  number  of 
daughter  cells. 

384.  The  form  of  cells  varies  to 
suit  the  use  for  which  they  are  in- 
tended and  the  amount  and  direction 


479 

479,  Showing  cell  forma- 
tion in  Achlya — mother  cell, 
showing  a  number  of  nuclei 
in  the  mass  of  protoplasm 
which  is  preparing  to  break 
up  into  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent or  daughter  cells  ; 

of  the  pressure  to  which  they  are  sub-  a' a' a' etc" nu 
jected*      The    normal  shape  is   globular   or  spheroidal 
when  free   from  pressure    (Fig.   480) ;    when  pressure 


480,  Form  of  cells  in  loose  parenchyma.     481,  Cross-section  of  parenchyma  cells  from  stalk  of  Indian 
Corn  (X550),  showing  form  under  slight  pressure;  gw,gw,  partition  walls  ;  a,  «,  intercellular  spaces. 

from  surrounding  cells  is  exerted,  they  be- 
come ellipsoidal,  egg-shaped,  prismatic,  or 
polyhedral  (Figs.  481,482).  In  the  trunks 
and  branches  of  trees  and  stems  of  herba- 
ceous plants  the  cells  become  elongated 
in  the  direction  of  growth  (Fig.  467). 
482,  Form  of  ceiis  385.  The  size  of  the  cells  in  the  soft 

under    greater    pressure 

from  aii  directions.        tissue  varies ;    the  largest  is  about  -gV  of 


152  PHYSIOLOGICAL   BOTANY. 

an  inch  in  diameter.  From  this  cells  occur  whose 
diameters  range  all  the  way  down  to  -^oW  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  In  the  more  solid  tissues  they  range 
from  J  to  fa  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  from  T?V<7  to 
-j-oVo  in  their  cross-sections.  Cells  of  the  long  staple 
cotton  wool  are  from  one  to  two  inches  in  length. 

386.  Spiral  and  annular  cells  are  formed  when 
rings,  bands,  or  hoop-like  processes 
appear  on  the  inner  surfaces  of  the 
walls ;  in  the  spiral  cell  an  uninter- 
rupted fibrous  process  extends  the 
whole  length  of  the  cell  in  a  spiral 
coil  (Fig.  483).  The  annular  cell  heis  #3,  spiral  ceii  from  or- 

chid.    484,  Annular  cell  from 

bands  or  hoop-like  markings  as  though  Mistletoe- 

the  spiral  fiber  had  been  interrupted  at  several  points 

(Fig.  484). 

387.     Dotted    or    pitted    cells    are    pro- 
duced when  the  coatings  on  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  cell   wall  are   not  uniform  in 
thickness,  leaving  thin  spots,  or  pits,  which 
485,  Dotted  or  are  more  nearly  transparent  when  viewed 

pitted     cells     from 

Eider  pith.  under  the  glass,  than  the  more  thickened 

parts  of  the  wall ;  hence  the  name  (Fig.  485). 

388.  Reticulated   cells   are   produced  by 
coatings    which    are    deposited    or    formed 
upon    the    inner    surface    of    the    cell-wall, 
where    they    at    first    appear    in    spots    and 
lines,    of    different    sizes    and    lengths   (Fig.     486, 

cell  from  the  Mis- 

486).    As  the  cell  grows  older,  the  markings  tietoe. 
increase  in  length,  and  touching  each  other,  form  an 
irregular  net-work. 

389.  Collenchyma  cells  are  cubical,  cylindrical,  or 
irregular    in    form,  whose  walls    are    much    thickened 


VEGETABLE    HISTOLOGY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


153 


at  the  angles,  while  they  are  of  ordinary  thickness  in 

other  parts.    These  cells  occur  in 

most  plants  of  the  higher  orders 

and  in  some  ferns,  and  are  found 

in  the  tissues  just  beneath  the 

epidermis. 

390.  Sclerenchyma  cells,  some- 
times called  grit  or  stony  cells, 
have  hardened  walls  produced 
by  deposition  upon  them  of  the 
horny  substance  found  in  the 
pits  of  the  Cherry,  Peach,  and 

487,  Collenchyma  cells  from  leaf  stalk 
Plum  and  ,the  Shells  Of  nutS;  of  Begonia;  «,  epidermal  cells;  <*,  collen- 

chyma  cells;  chl,  chlorophyll  grains;  v, 
SOmetimeS  fOUnd  in  the  fleshy  thickened  angles  where  these  cells  meet; 

p,  part  of  parenchyma  cell 

parts  of  the  Pear. 


488,  Sclerenchyma  cells  ;  PP,  canals  connecting  the  cavity  t  with  the  outer  surface  or  adjacent  cells; 
1,  2,  3,  thickened  layers;  p,  in  B,  cell  walls. 

391.  Epidermal  cells  appear  in  plate-like  expan- 
sions forming  the  outer  coverings  of  leaves  and  young 
bark ;  their  edges  are  in  contact ;  their  boundaries  are 
either  straight  or  sinuous  ;  and  they  are  elongated  in 
the  direction  of  growth.  The  edges  are  so  firmly  knit 
together  that  the  entire  covering  of  one  side  of  a  leaf 
may  be  removed  intact.  The  epidermis  at  first  is  usu- 
ally formed  of  a  single  layer,  but  later  it  is  sometimes 
made  up  of  two  or  more  layers  (Fig.  489). 


154 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


392.  Hairs  are  outgrowths  of  epidermal  cells,  and 
are  composed  usually  of  greatly  elongated  single  cells 
(Figs.  490-497),  which  fre- 
quently branch  ;  others  are 
made  up  of  a  number  of  cells. 
Hairs  take  on  a  number  of 
forms  by  branching. 

Scales  are  another  form  of 
epidermal  outgrowth,  and  ap- 

-  _  _     .. .  489,  Is  a  vertical  section  of  a  leaf  of  Bank- 

pear    in    the    lOrm    OI    dlSKS.  s\&\   a,  a,  show  two  layers  of  cells  in  the  epi- 

dermis; c,  hairs  found  in  little  cavities  on  the 

Bristles  are    hair-like  proc- "under  side  of  the  leaf, 
esses,   the   walls   of  whose    cells   are   hardened. 

Prickles  are  outgrowths  of  a  still  firmer  character. 


494 


490,  Rootlet  of  Madder,  showing  cells  expanded  into  hair-like  processes.  491,  Section  of  a  glandular 
hair  of  Fraxinella.  492,  Hair  of  Brionia,  composed  of  several  cells.  493,  Hair  surmounted  by  a  gland,  An- 
tirrhinum majus.  494,  Stinging  hair  of  Urrica  dioica.  495,  Jointed  hair  from  a  stamen  of  Tradescandia. 
496,  Star-shaped  hair  from  the  petiole  of  Nuphar  advena  (X200).  497,  Branched  hair  of  Arabis. 

393.  Glands  are  processes  consisting  of  a  single 
cell  or  an  aggregation  of  cells,  situated  a  little  above, 
at,  or  just  beneath  the  surface,  the  function  of  which 
is  to  secrete  and  discharge  peculiar  substances,  as  oils, 
nectar,  etc.  Glands  sometimes  terminate  in  a  hair-like 
process  (Fig.  493). 

Stinging  hairs  are  usually  setaceous  and  sufficiently 
rigid  to  perforate  animal  tissue ;  having  entered,  the 


VEGETABLE    HISTOLOGY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


155 


apex  breaks   off  and  the  contained  irritating  liquid  is 
discharged  into  the  wound,  producing  the  sting. 

394.  Stoma-cells  are  epidermal.  Stomata  are 
mouths  or  openings  into  the  intercellular  spaces  of  the 
leaves  and  young  bark,  sometimes  called  breathing- 
pores.  They  are  guarded  each  by  two  half-moon- 
shaped  cells  whose  concave  sides  lie  next  each  other ; 
when  filled  with  liquids,  their  concavity  increases,  leav- 
ing an  orifice  between  the  guard  cells.  For  the  passage 
of  air  and  moisture  when  the  atmosphere  is  dry  and 
the  plant  can  not  afford  to  part  with  its  fluids,  the 
guard  cells  lose  their  concavity,  the  sides  become 
straight,  the  orifice  closes,  and  evaporation  is  arrested. 
The  number  of  these  openings  is  very  great,  many 
thousands  appearing  in  a  square  inch  of  surface  (Figs. 
498-500). 


498,  Cells  of  epidermis  with  a  stoma  from  leaf  of  Helleborus  fcetidus.    499,  Vertical  section  of  a  stoma  of 
Narcissus ;  a,  cuticle.    500,  Epidermis  cells  with  stomata  of  Tradescantia  Virginica— a,  a,  guard  cells. 

395.  Cork  cells  are  cubical  or  tabular,  and  fit  closely 
together ;  in  the  outer  layers  they  are  dead  and  empty, 
and  constitute  the  outer  bark  layers  of  old  trees,  prom- 
inent in  the  Quercus  suber  (Cork  Oak). 


156 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


CHAPTER    II. 

TISSUES. 

396.  Parenchyma    is  a  tissue    composed    of   short 
cells,   usually  with   intercellular   spaces    among    them, 
and  is  the  foundation  of  vegetable  structure.    All  cells 
may  be  regarded  as  modifications  of  parenchyma  ;  the 
various  markings  and  forms  being  due  to  alterations 
which  go  on  by  degrees  to  fit  them  for  the  functions 
they  are  to  exercise  in  the  tissues  of  the  plant. 

397.  In  the  lower  plants  the  entire  individual  con- 
sists of  parenchyma,  and  it  is  found  throughout  the 
structure  of  the  higher 

plants,  mingled  and  in- 
terlaced with  other  tis- 
sue, especially  in  their 
green  parts.  Fig.  501 
is  a  microscopic  view 
of  a  thin  slice  of  the 
rhizome  of  Sanguina- 
ria  Canadensis,  mag- 
nified to  100  diame- 
ters; the  cells  are  un- 

der pressure,  and  vary 
*_  ,       .         .  , 

greatly       in       SIZe        and. 

shape,  and  have  a  bun- 

dle  of  wood-cells  imbedded   among  them.     For  forms 

and  size  of  cells  see  No.  385  ;  also  see  Figs.  480-482. 

398.  Prosenchyma    is    the    generic    name    of    the 
elongated,  painted  cells  or  fibers  without  intercellular 
spaces  that  form  plant  tissues. 


gection  of  the  rhiZome.of  Bloodroot  ;  a,  a,  a  bundle  of 


TISSUES. 


157 


tion  forming  a  flbro- vascular  bundle. 


399.  Woody  tissue  is  made  up  of  slender,  lengthened, 
lignified  cells,  which  taper  at  the 

ends,  and  are  found  in  woody 
plants  overlapping  each  other, 
and  packed  in  bundles  (Figs. 
502-504). 

400.  Bast  tissue  is  composed 
of  elongated  cells,  with  thickened 
walls,  not  sufficiently  lignified  to 
be    hard ;    they  are   flexible    and 
tough,  and  abound  in  the  inner 
bark  of  dicotyledonous  trees  and 
shrubs. 

401.  Disk-bearing  tissue  is  constituted  of  length- 

ened cells,  which  have  pits  or 
lens-shaped  markings,  found  in 
the  Pine  and  other  gymnosperms 
(Fig.  505). 

402.  Vessels    or    ducts    are 
tubes  or  passages  through  which 
the  fluids  pass  from  one  part  of 
the  plant's  structure  to  another. 
In  the  formation  of   these    pas- 
sages    elongated     cells     arrange 
themselves   end  to   end,  become 
anastomosed ;    the    walls    in    the 
ends  -of  the  cells  are  ruptured  or 
disappear,  and  uninterrupted  pas- 
sages are  produced. 

403.  Spiral  vessels  are  con- 
505,  Lengthwise  section  of  (Scotch  structed  by  the  union    of  spiral 

Pine)   Pinus    Sylvestris,   showing    disk- 
bearing  tissue ;  <*,  Cambium  wood-ceiis;  cells,  in  the  manner  described  in 

a,  Z>,  c,  etc.,  older  cells  ;  t,  t',  t",  bordered 

pits;  st,  large  pits  (x225).-Socfts.  ^Q    ^g^    article     (Fig.     506). 


158 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


404.  Annular  or  ringed  ducts  are  produced  by  the 
union  end  to  end  of  annular  cells,  the  walls  of  which 
are   held  apart  by  rings  or  hoop-like 

thickenings  on  the  inner  surface  (Fig. 
507,  A,  B,  0). 

405.  Scalariform  ducts,  character- 
istic of  ferns,  are  formed  when  the  an- 
nular vessels  are  compressed  into  pris- 
matic forms  whose  sides  present  the 
appearance  of  ladders  (Fig.  507,  D). 

406.  Dotted    or   pitted   ducts  are 
formed  of  dotted  or  pitted  cells,  as  in 
the  case  of  annular  cells  (Fig.  507,  E). 

407.  Sieve    ducts    or    tubes    are 
formed  of  colorless  elongated  cells,  of 

large  diameter;  the  walls  are  soft  and  from Mamillaria- 

very  much  enlarged  and  thickened  at  the  joints ;    at 

the    junctions    finely    perforated    plates    appear   (Fig. 


506 


50  i 


507,  A,  annular  vessel  from  leaf-stalk  of  Melon ;  B,  duct,  part  spiral  and  part  annular,  from  Melon ;  C, 
part  annular  and  part  reticulated  duct  from  Melon  ;  D,  annular  and  reticulated  ducts  pressed  into  pris- 
matic shape,  forming  scalariform  vessels,  from  Tree-fern  ;  E,  pitted  or  dotted  duct,  formed  by  the  union 
of  pitted  cells  from  melon-stalk. 

508,  A)  ;  also  on  the  internodes  are  spots  of  fine  per- 
forations and  slits  (Fig.  508,  B).  These  spots  of  per- 
forations are  like  a  strainer  or  sieve ;  hence  the  name. 


I 

I 


TISSUES. 


159 


TOS,  A,  Cross-section  of  Pumpkin  vine  (x'550);  si,  walls  or  septa  at  the  union  of  cells,  developing  Into 
sieve  plates;  c,  c,  cambium  cells  ;  p,  p,  parenchyma.  J3,  Lengthwise  section,  showing  the  enlarged  joiD**  ; 
g,  an  edge  view  of  sieve  septa;  «i,  sieve  spot  on  the  side-wall. 


408.  Latex  vessels  are 
produced  by  the  union  end 
to  end  of  latex  cells;  by 
anastomosing  and  branch- 
ing a  reticulated  tissue  is 
formed  which  conveys  the 
milky  juices  of  the  plant 
through  its  structure.  In 
the  tissues  of  the  Ficus 
elastica,  Euphorbia  and  the 
milk  weeds,  besides  the 
Latex  tubes,  numerous 
closed  cells  are  present, 
charged  with  the  same 
milky  fluids  as  the  ducts 
(Fig.  509).  The  free  cells 
frequently  elongate,  and 
sometimes  branch. 

These  vessels  are  ar- 
ranged in  the  stem  as  rep- 
resented  in  Fig.  510. 


vessel  m°r' 


160 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 

•    c 


510,  A,  Lengthwise  section  of  the  Castor-oil  plant.  Beginning  with  the  bark,  r,  cortical  cells;  gs,  bun- 
dle sheath;  5,  bast  fibers;  p,  bast  parenchyma;  c,  cambium;  the  cells  between  c  and  p  become  sieve  tubes; 
*,  t,  pitted  vessels  ;  q,  shows  an  absorbed  septum  ;  A",  h",  annular  ducts;  h,  h,  pitted  vessels,  resembling 
annular  ducts;  7,  vessel  apparently  made  up  partly  of  annular  cells  and  partly  of  reticulated  cells;  «,  spiral 
vessel,  of  very  small  caliber,  next  to  the  pith;  a',  larger  calibered  spiral  vessel;  m,  pith-cells. 


610,  By  Lengthwise  slice  of  wood  from  an  Ailanthus  glandulosa,  highly  magnified;  g,  g,  pitted  ducts;  p,p, 
wood  parenchyma;  If,  woody  fibers 5  st,  st,  cross-section  of  medullary  rays;  t,  annular  ducts. 


SYSTEMS    OF   TISSUES    AND    PLANT    GROWTH. 


161 


S3 


CHAPTER    III. 

SYSTEMS    OF    TISSUES    AND    PLANT    GROWTH. 

409.  The  brief  account  of  the  cell  and  its  modifica- 
tions into  tissues  and  ducts,  prepares  for  the  considera- 
tion of  the  manner  in  which  these  organs  are  arranged 
in  the  structure  of  plants. 

In  the  lowest  groups  of  plant  life  the  individual  is 
either  a  single  cell  or  an  assemblage  of  soft  cells,  with- 
out special  order  of  arrangement. 

410.  Unicellular  plants.  —  The    most  simple  forms 
of  plant  life  are  single  minute  cells,  called   Bacteria, 
the  smallest  objects  that  are 

known  to  exercise  vital  func- 

tions ;  they  are  so  small  that 

50,000   laid  on  a  line  side 

by    side     would     occupy    a 

space   less   than   an   inch  in 

length.      The    typical    form 

is  globular,  appearing  under 

the   microscope  as  a  minute 

granule   or  dot,  as  No.  1   in 

Fig.  511;  they  are,  however,  frequently  elongated,  and 

appear  in  an  oval  form,  as  in  No.  2  ;    again,  they  take 

on  the  form  of  a  fine  line,  straight,  curved,  or  crooked, 

as  in  No.  3  ;   another  time  they  are  spiral,  as  in  No.  4. 

These   minute    cells  are    stored   with  protoplasm,   and 

swim   in  fluids  from  which   they  obtain   nourishment. 

They  increase  by  fission,  and  multiply  with   marvelous 

rapidity.     They  are  found  in  the  watery  fluids  of  both 

animals  and  plants. 


Sarclne;  2,  Bacterium;  3i  Vibro;  4,  gpiril. 
lum> 


162 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


Some  Bacteria  separate  into  spores ;  and  diseases  in  men  as  well  as  plants 
are  believed  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  Bacteria.  They  are  parasitical  or 
saprophytic,  feeding  on  living  or  decaying  matter;  they  are  the  agents  of  de- 
cay and  revel  upon  the  ruins  they  produce.  As  they  multiply  by  fission,  they 
are  called  Schizomycetes  (^x^,  to  divide,  and  M^S,  a  fungus).  (Fig.  512.) 


\     \ 


512 


512,  A,  Bacterium  Termo,  magnified  to  1,000  diameters,  undergoing  the  process  of  fission.  JB,  Same, 
magnified  to  3,COO  diameters,  in  which  the  process  of  fission  is  nearly  completed.  <7,  Micrococci  (x  1,000) 
undergoing  fission,  the  new  cells  arranging  themselves  in  curved  and  crooked  lines  or  in  irregular  groups. 
D,  Sarcina  Ventriculi  (x  1,000)  undergoing  fission  in  two  directions,  the  new  cells  arranging  themselves  in 
square  groups. 

411.  The  Yeast  Plant  (Fig.  513)  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  of  the  unicellular  organisms  ;  it  is  the  agent 
of  fermentation,   and  plays  an  important 

part    in    bread-making,  where   it    disinte- 
grates the  starch-grains   in  the  flour,  and 
thereby  liberates  carbon  dioxide ;  the  gas     ^  , 
set  free  struggles  to  find  its  way  through  513 

513.  Yeast  Plant,  Sac 

the  dough,  becomes  entangled,  forms  cav-  charomyces  cerevisi*. 
ities  in  the  mass,  and  makes  it  sponge-like  or  light. 

412.  The  next  grade  above  the  plant  which  is  a 
single  cell  is  one  composed  of  a  mass  of  cells  without 
a  special  axis  of  growth  ;   as  some  of  the  Sea-weeds, 
which  are  mere  masses   of   flat  cells  arranged  in  two 
layers,  forming  irregular  leaf-like  expansions. 


SYSTEMS    OF    TISSUES    AND    PLANT    GROWTH. 


163 


413.  This  book  is  intended  to  consider  the  higher 
plants  only ;  we  shall  therefore  now  proceed  to  describe 
the  manner  in  which  the  modi- 
fied   cells     and    vessels    are    ar- 
ranged  in   the   higher   organized 

plant  structures. 

414.  Exogenous  or  Dicotyle- 
donous structure. — Growth  in  the 
most  highly  organized  plants  is 
best  illustrated  by  the  examina- 
tion of  a  tree   or  shoot  of  Oak, 

Maple,  Apple,  or  Cherry  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  of 
its  life.  A  cross-section  of  such  a 
scion  presents  a  circle  of  pith  in 
the  center,  around  which  are  con- 
centric circular  rings,  the  inner  one 
wood,  the  outer  ones  bark.  In  the 
figure  (514),  a,  the  pith;  5,  the 
wood ;  c,  the  bark.  On  the  inner 
edge  of  the  wood  is  a  ring  of  spi- 
ral vessels,  d,  which  is  called  the 
medullary  or  pith  sheath.  The  pith 
is  made  up  of  parenchyma  and 
extends  between  the  wedges  of 
wood  in  flat  cells  connecting  the 
pith  with  the  bark  (1,  2,  3,  Fig. 
515,  A,  cross-section  of  the  stem  of  514),  forming  the  silver  grain 

a  Maple  at  the  end  of  the  first  season's  .          /--\i  i        •» /r         i  11 

growth;  i,  edge  of  the  pith;  2,  spiral  seen    in  Oak    and    Maple    planks, 

vessels:   3,  wood  region  made  up  of  .  ,  •  i        i  •         i  j.'  £t 

woody  fiber  and  dotted  ducts  and  other     Or       III       a        longitudinal       SCCtlOn      Ol 
vessels;  4,  camhium  layer  made  up  of       ,  ,,  -,    .  j 

new  cells;  5,  liber:  6,  larger  cells  and     thOS6         and        Other       Cabinet      WOOQS 
vessels  of  the  liber  or  bast  region;  7, 

cellular  envelope  or  green  bark;  8,     When    Split. 

corky  envelope  or  outer  bark  ;   9,  the  ., 

skin,  or  epidermis.     B,  shows  corre-  415.      The     WOOQ    IS     made    Up    OI 

sponding  vessels  and  tissues  in  a  ver- 
tical section  of  the  same  plant,  woody  fiber    interspersed    with    tis- 


164 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


sues  composed  of  the   cells,  vessels,  and  ducts  which 
have  already  been  described. 

416.  The  bark  at  the  end  of  the  first  year's  growth 
is  made  up  of  three  layers :  the  one  next  the  wood, 
called  bast,  is  composed  of  pa- 
renchyma, sieve  vessels,  and  li- 
ber-cells ;  on  account  of  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  bast  ducts  in 
this  layer,  it  has  been  called  the 
last  region  (Figs.  508,  516). 
The  liber-cells  are  long,  strong 
fibers,  and  in  some  plants  are 
very  tenacious  and  flexible,  form- 
ing the  material  in  Hemp,  Flax, 
and  other  textile  substances  util- 
ized in  manufacture  of  cordage 
and  fabrics. 

Next  to  the  bast  is  the  green 
cellular  layer,  called  phellogen, 
because  by  its  dividing,  it  pro- 
duces outside  of  it  cork,  which 
increases  by  the  addition  of  new 

material  to   the    inner    surface.  ^_^_ 

The  cork  is  usually  of  a  brown 

.516,  Is  a  photograph  from  nature  of  a 

or  ashv  color,  sometimes  white     layer  of  bast-fibrous  bundles  found  in  the 

secondary  bark  of  the' stem  of  an  old  Carica 

or   striped  ;    in  old   trees  it  is    IGtfSZ^Stt&Z 
cracked     and     broken    by    the    KLTG^S-JJSSJ 

o-TTkAxrtVi      r»f     fVifi     ASrnorl        nnH      fflllQ        have  formed  an  irregular  net- work  with 
giOW  til      Ul      LI1U      WUUU,      c  elongated  sinuous  meshes.    These  meshes 

off  in  scales  or  strips,  as  in  the    J^S^'tJSJ^^SS1!! 
shag-bark  Hickory ;  in  the  Paper    moved  by  maceration' 
Birch  it  peels  off  in  sheets  resembling  paper.     Upon 
some  trees   it  develops   into   thick  porous  layers,  and 
upon  the  Cork  Oak  furnishes  the  cork  of  commerce. 


SYSTEMS    OF    TISSUES    AND    PLANT   GROWTH.  165 

417.  During  the  season  of  activity  the  young  stem 
continues  to  increase  both  in  height  and  diameter  by 
the  multiplication  of  cells  and  the  formation  of  the 
various  tissues  required  by  the  conditions  of  growth 
(Chap.  III.,  Introduction)  ;  hence  a  mass  of  infant  cells 
is  constantly  present  between  the  wood  and  the  bark, 
and  in  the  buds  of  the  stem  and  branches. 

On  the  approach  of  winter  the  leaves  fall,  the  ter- 
minal buds  refuse  to  expand,  and  the  entire  process 
of  growth  is  arrested,  until  the  revivifying  warmth  of 
the  succeeding  spring  unlocks  the  imprisoned  forces 
that  have  slept  during  the  frosty  season,  when  the 
fluids  from  the  earth  begin  to  flow  upward  and  out- 
ward through  the  vessels  and  ducts  of  the  last  year's 
wood  to  the  bark  and  the  leaves ;  the  young  cambium 
cells  which  have  slumbered  through  the  winter  are 
filled  with  sap  and  commence  another  season  of 
growth  ;  the  buds  burst  into  leaves  or  flowers,  and  the 
greatest  activity  succeeds  the  late  period  of  rest.  The 
young  cells  multiply  and  increase  in  size,  most  of 
them  being  changed  into  woody  fiber  and  ducts,  com- 
mencing a  new  layer  of  wood  on 
the  outside  of  the  last  layer,  and 
a  new  layer  of  bast  on  the  inside 
of  the  old  one ;  also  a  new  layer 
on  the  inside  of  the  cortex  layer. 
In  this  way  the  work  goes  on,  and 
layer  after  layer  is  added  for  each 
period  of  activity,  which  in  regions  ^^jjjjjj^?'  517 
of  severe  frost  occurs  yearly  (Fig.  517,  is  a  photograph  of  &  cross- 

T-rT'    T    •  section    of   an    oak-stem   twenty-five 

517).          Within    the    trOpiCS    and    all    years  old,  showing  the  annual  circular 

rings,    the    whole  surrounded  by  the 

regions  of  no  frost,  periods  of  rest  rough  bark. 

and  activity  may  occur  more  frequently  than  once  a 


166  PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 

year,  and  therefore  the  number  of  rings  on  a  cross- 
section  does  not  always  indicate  the  number  of  years 
in  the  age  of  a  tree.  But  in  the  higher  latitudes  a 
new  tube  of  wood  and  one  of  the  inner  bark  is  formed 
yearly. 

That  more  than  one  ring  of  wood  may,  and  sometimes  does,  form  in  one 
season  of  growth,  even  in  regions  of  severe  frost,  has  been  established  by 
observation. 

418.  Sap  wood  is  a  name  applied  to  the  new  wood, 
and  usually  includes  several  of  the  last  formed  layers ; 
it  is  so  called  because  the  fluids  in  moving  upward  from 
the  ground  pass  through  its  vessels.     In  most  trees  it 
is  of  a  lighter  color  than  the  older  layers,  and  on  that 
account  was  called  by  early  botanists  Lignum  album, 
white  wood ;  now  called  Alburnum,  or  white  wood. 

419.  Heart  wood  is  that  part  of  the  trunk  or  stem 
near  the  center  or  heart,   and  for   that  reason  called 
Heart  wood.     It   is  usually  more  dense,  and  therefore 
called    Duramen,   hard  wood.     In    some    species    it    is 
much   darker  than  the   sap  wood,  hence  former  botan- 
ists called  it  Lignum    nigrum,   Black  wood.     In  some 
plants,    as    the    Black  Walnut,  the    Duramen    is  very 
dark,  while  the  Heart  wood  of  the  Maple  is  not  much 
darker  than  the  sap  wood,  though  they  may  grow  side 
by  side  and  draw  from  the  earth  the  same  materials. 
It  would   seem,  therefore,  that   chemical   changes  take 
place  either  in  the  plant's  structure   or  upon  the  ma- 
terials taken  in  to  suit  the  necessities  of  each  case. 

On  account  of  the  mode  of  growth  in  Dicotyledonous  stems,  the  name 
Exogens,  or  outside  growers,  was  formerly  applied  to  plants  of  this  structure. 
They  are  characterized  by  two  or  more  seed  leaves  in  their  embryo,  and  pro- 
duce netted-veined  leaves.  See  Dicotyledons,  pages  163-166. 

Nearly  all  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  temperate 
zones  are  Exogens  or  Dicotyledonous  plants,  well 


SYSTEMS    OF    TISSUES    AND    PLANT    GROWTH. 


167 


represented  by  the  Oak, 
Pine,  Elm,  Maple,  Apple, 
Pear,  Peach,  Cherry,  and 
other  fruit  and  timber 
trees. 

420.  The  root  is  that 
part  of  the  plant  that 
grows  downward  into  the 
ground  and  holds  the 
whole  firmly  in  the  soil. 
Its  tissues  correspond  with 
those  of  the  stem  to  which 
it  belongs,  and  it  increases 
in  diameter  by  additional 
layers,  one  for  each  period 
of  activity,  succeeded  by 
a  rest.  The  extremity  of 
the  root  and  that  of  each 
of  its  branches  is  encased 


519 


520 


519,  Rootlet  of  Maple  with  hairs  or  fibrillae;  «,  root 
cap.    520,  Duckmeat,  showing  the  root  cap  «. 


518,  a,  Shrub;  b,  Fir;  c,  Oak-tree. 

by  a  layer  of  older  cells, 
called  the  root  .cap,  a  con- 
trivance which  seems  to 
be  intended  to  protect  the 
tender  infant  cells  just  be- 
hind it,  which  during  the 
growing  season  are  increas- 
ing and  multiplying,  to  ex- 
tend the  root  and  rootlets 
in  all  directions  in  the  soil. 
The  parts  of  the  root  and 
rootlets  near  the  growing 
points  absorb  the  fluids 
which  are  presented  to 
them  in  the  soil,  but  this 


168 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


absorption  is  largely  helped  by  root  hairs,  which  clothe 
the  root  and  rootlets,  as  seen  in  Figs.  519,  520.  Fig. 
519,  root  of  a  Maple  sprinkled  with  hair-like  processes 
or  minute  fibrillse ;  these  are  usually  each  a  single 
elongated  cell,  and  appear  on  the  newer  parts  of  the 
root,  a  little  distance  from  the  growing  point,  dying  or 
becoming  useless  on  the  older  parts.  The  Boot,  as  to 
use,  form,  etc.,  is  treated  in  another  place  (see  Chapter 
XIII.,  Structural  Botany). 


CHAPTER    IV. 

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS    STRUCTURE. 

421.  The  woody  fibers  and  vessels  that  make  up 
the  stems  of  Palms,  Indian  Corn,  Bamboo,  Sugar  Cane, 
and  all  grass-like  plants,  are  not  arranged  as  they  are 
in  the  Oak,  Maple,  and  Apple,  already  described.  A 
cross-section  of  a  Palm  stem  presents 
a  mass  of  pith,  dotted  all  over  with 
sections  of  woody  fiber  and  vessels 
without  any  apparent  order  of  ar- 
rangement (521);  the  whole  inclosed 
in  a  circular  ring  or  rind,  in  which 
the  fibre-vascular  bundles  are  smaller 
than  in  the  body  of  the  stem.  In  a 
longitudinal  section  the  threads  of  woody  fiber  may 
be  traced  from  the  bases  of  the  leaves  in  a  curve  out 
toward  the  center,  and  in  a  recurve  back  again  to  the 
side  whence  they  started  (Figs.  522,  523).  In  stems 
like  the  Indian  Corn  and  the  Grasses,  with  long  spaces 
between  the  leaves  and  closed  nodes,  the  fibro-vascular 
threads  extend  in  straight  lines  from  node  to  node, 


521,  Cross-section  of  the  trunk 
of  a  Palm. 


MONOCOTYLEDONOUS  STRUCTURE. 


169 


where  they  unite   with  those    of    the   next  internode. 

The     rind  .  of     the     Corn 

stalk,    Bamboo,    Reed,    etc., 

is    smooth    and    flinty,   due 

to   the    deposition   of   silica 

on    the    walls    of    the   cells 

that  compose  it.    This  mode 

of  growth   is  well  shown  in 

the   Palms   of  tropical  and 

SUb-trOpical     regions,     aS     the  522'  Vertical  section  of  a  Palm  stem,  showing 

course  and  direction  of  fibers.     513,   Theoretical 

Palmetto    of   the   Carolinas,  plan  of  the  direction  of  fibers  in  a  vertical  section  of 

7     a  Palm  stem ;  a,  a,  bases  of  leaves,  showing  direc- 

the    Cocoanut   Palm,    many  tiol>  of  fiber  growth 

thousands  of  which  have  been  planted  on  the  coast  of 

Florida. 

422.   The   Palm,  which   is  the  type   of  the  mono- 

cotyledonous  division  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  reaches 
perfection  only  in  tropical  or 
sub-tropical  regions.  There 
some  of  the  members  of 
this  great  division  tower  to 
the  height  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet,  straight,  un- 
branched  cylindrical  col- 
ums,  crowned  with  a  mass 
of  green  foliage,  presenting 
to  the  eye  magnificent  ob- 
jects of  the  picturesque  and 
beautiful.  The  Palm  is  one 
of  the  most  important  or- 
naments in  planted  grounds 
in  tropical  countries,  occu- 
524,  Paim,  Agave,  etc.  pying  a  belt  all  around  the 


170  PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 

globe  of  about  thirty-five  degrees  both  sides  of  the 
Equator.  It  flourishes  in  the  bare  sands  of  the  sea- 
coast,  skirts  arid  plains,  beautifies  the  oasis  of  the 
desert,  and  inhabits  the  murky  bottoms  of  southern 
swamps  and  low  islands  of  Southern  Asia  and  tropical 
America.  These  plants  are  of  vast  utility,  producing 
food  and  many  domestic  and  economic  products. 

There  are  certain  noticeable  things  in  the  mode  of 
monocotyledonous  growth.  The  stem  has  no  proper 
bark,  does  not  increase  in  diameter  after  it  is  perfectly 
formed,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  consists  of  an  un- 
branched  cylindrical  column,  made  up  of  pith  inter- 
mingled with  fibro-vascular  threads,  generally  without 
any  order  of  arrangement,  the  whole  inclosed  in  a 
rind  or  false  bark  (521-524),  well  illustrated  in  a 
cross-section  of  a  stalk  of  Indian  Corn.  There  are  a 
few  plants  that  seem  to  be  connecting  links  between 
these  two  modes  of  growth ;  a  notable  example  of 
which  is  Dracaena  draco,  or  Dragon-tree,  which  has  a 
cambium  region,  and  continues  to  increase  in  diameter. 

Formerly  these  plants  were  called  Endogens,  meaning  Inside  growers, 
in  contradistinction  to  Exogens,  or  Outside  growers,  because  the  new  ma- 
terial of  growth  was  then  supposed  to  be  deposited  always  inside  of  the  last 
deposit  of  woody  bundles ;  but  as  it  is  now  known  that  the  additions  are 
interspersed  among  the  former  ones,  in  most  cases  without  special  order,  the 
name  is  not  expressive.  Plants  of  this  mode  of  growth  have  but  one  cotyle- 
don, or  seed  leaf  ;  their  flowers  are  mostly  three-parted,  and  their  leaves 
generally  parallel- veined.  See  Monocotyledons,  pages  168-170. 

423.  Tissues  of  the  Pteridophyta.  — The  Ferns  and 
their  allies  have  a  complicated  and  well-marked  organi- 
zation ;  the  outer  bark  is  similar  to  that  of  the  flower- 
ing plants,  and  vascular-woody  fiber  extends  through- 
out the  stem,  and  leaf  stalks  ramifying  in  the  fronds, 
to  which  the  great  beauty  of  this  division  of  the 
vegetable  world  is  due. 


LEAF    STRUCTURE. 


171 


A  cross-section   of   a  Fern   stem  shows  a  mass  of 
parenchyma,  supported  by  an  outer  sheath  or  tube  of 
vascular-woody    bundles,    the    whole 
inclosed  by  a  cortex  of  dense  scleren- 
chyma,  the  leaf  stems  presenting  the 
same  structure  (Fig.  525). 

424.  Tissues  of  Bryophyta,  moss- 
like  plants. — The  higher  types  of  this 
division,  while  largely  made  up  of 
cellular  masses,  have  a  semi-vascu- 
lar-fibro  arrangement,  and  in  some 


525 


525,  Section  of  an  Acrogenous 
stem   of  Tree-Fern    (Cyathea), 

mosses  the  fibers  are  so  strong  as  to  showing  the  vascular  bundles 

imbedded  near  the  circumference 
of  the  cellular  mass. 


approach  a  woody  character. 


CHAPTER     V. 

LEAF    STRUCTURE. 

425.  Leaves  are  composed  of  the  same  general 
structure  as  the  stems  and  branches  which  they  clothe 
and  adorn,  and  are  made  up  of  vessels  and  tissues 
already  described:  1,  woody  fiber,  which  constitutes 
the  frame-work  ;  2,  cellular  tissue,  which  fills  up  the 
spaces  between  the  ribs  or  frame-work  formed  by  the 
woody  part.  The  leaf  of  a  Maple,  Elm,  or  Apple  is 
composed  of:  1,  the  leaf-stalk,  by  which  it  is  attached 
to  the  stem  or  branch;  2,  the  blade,  the  expanded 
part.  The  leaf-stalk  or  petiole  is  a  column  of  bundles 
of  woody  fiber  and  green  tissue,  covered  by  the  epi- 
dermal tissue.  These  bundles  extend  in  length  to  suit 
the  size  of  the  blade,  throwing  off  branches  and 
branchlets  to  construct  the  frame,  making  an  irregular 
net-work,  the  meshes  of  which  are  filled  up  by  the 


172 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 


green  tissue.      (See   Structural  Botany,  Chapters  XX.- 
XXIII.  inclusive.) 

426.  An  important  function  of  the  leaf  is  to  expose 
a  large  surface ;  consequently,  the  blade  is  thin  and  so 
formed  as  to  present  the  largest   number  of  cells  to 
the  air  and  sunlight. 

The  layer  on  the  upper  side  of  the  blade  is  made 
up  of  oblong  cells,  closely  packed  with  their  ends  next 
to  the  surface.  The  lower  layers  are  made  up  of 
smaller,  more  irregular  and  more  loosely  arranged 
cells,  and  have  their 
longer  diameters  in  the 
direction  of  the  surface 
of  the  blade.  The  deep 
green  color  of  the  up- 
per surface  of  leaves  is 
largely  due  to  the  com- 
pactness of  the  green 
cells  in  the  upper  layer, 
while  the  paler  color  of 
the  under  side  is  the 
consequence  of  the 
loose  arrangement  of  8how  its  opening  into  the  intercellular  "assaees- 
those  in  the  lower  strata.  The  epidermal  covering  of 
the  leaf,  as  before  described,  is  a  thin  membrane  made 
up  of  one,  two,  or  three  layers  of  empty  thick-walled 
cells  (Figs.  489-524  inclusive). 

427.  Respiration  is  the  act  of  drawing  air  into  the 
lungs  and  casting  it  out  again.      (From  the  Latin  re, 
again,  and  spirare,  to  blow  or  breathe.)    The  air  while 
in  the  lungs  is  known  to  part  with  some  of  its  oxygen, 
and  what  is  breathed  out   is  charged  with  substances 
which  it  did  not  possess  when  taken  in ;  therefore  the 


526,  Magnified  portion  of  the  leaf  of  Viola  tricolor  in 
perspective;  a,  cells  of  the  epidermis,  sometimes  called 
plate  cells;  b,  compact  layer  of  green  cells  next  to  the 
upper  surface;  c,  loose  cells  below;  d,  epidermal  cells  of 
the  lower  surface,  with  stomata,  one  of  which  is  cut  to 


LEAF    STRUCTURE. 


173 


taking  in  of  oxygen  and  its  combination  with  other 
substances  while  in  the  lungs  and  the  liberation  of 
substances  thus  formed  constitute  respiration  in  ani- 
mals. So  with  plants  ;  they  suck  or  draw  in  air 
through  openings  in  the  epidermis  already  described, 
and  when  it  is  discharged  it  is  found  to  be  changed  in 
character,  having  been  robbed  of  its  oxygen  or  of  its 
carbon  dioxide.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  while  among 


8T 


528 

527,  Is  the  section  of  a  young  stem  or  branch  showing,  at  p,  the  pith;  a,  vascular-fibro  bundle,  passing 
off  from  the  stem  to  form  the  leaf-stalk  and  frame- work  of  the  blade;  d,  the  swelling  just  below  the  foot  of 
the  stalk;  I,  the  base  of  the  footstalk;  6,  the  axillary  bud;  c,  the  articulation  or  point  where  the  leaf-stalk 
is  attached  to  the  branch  or  stem.  528,  Magnified  section  of  a  leaf  perpendicular  to  its  surface;  P,  hair  on 
the  upper  surface;  ST,  stoma;  Es,  epidermis  of  the  upper  surface  made  up  of  plate  cells  (§  391);  Ps,  oval 
cells  closely  packed  with  longer  ones  perpendicular  to  the  epidermis;  M,  interspace  beneath  the  stoma; 
i,  interspaces  among  the  irregular  shaped,  loosely  packed  cells  of  the  lower  stratum  Pi;  Fv,  cross-section 
of  fibro-vascular  bundle:  JSi,  lower  epidermis  with  hairs.  (See  Figs.  489  to  500.) 

the  tissues  unites  with  substances  found  there,  and 
new  material  for  plant  growth  is  thus  formed  ;  in  the 
night  carbon  dioxide  is  breathed  out.  It  has  been 
shown  by  experiment  that  air  is  not  only  required  for 
the  health  of  plants,  but  that  they  can  not  exist  with- 
out it ;  for  when  placed  in  a  vacuum,  they  invariably 
perish.  Respiration  is  therefore'  necessary  to  the  life 
of  plants  as  well  as  to  animal  life.  . 

428.   Breathing  goes  on  in  all  parts  of  plants  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  at  night  as  well  as  in   the  daytime; 


174  PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 

and  at  night  especially  oxygen  is  consumed  and  car- 
bon dioxide  is  set  free.  This  fact  has  led  to  the  in- 
ference that 

Potted  plants  in  a  living  room  render  the  air  unfit 
to  breathe ;  but  carefully  conducted  experiments  have 
shown  that  one  hundred  ordinary  stove  plants  would 
not  injure  the  air  of  a  moderate  sized  sitting  or  living 
room  to  an  extent  that  could  be  in  any  way  injurious. 

429.  Metabolism  is  the  name  applied  to  the  process 
which   goes  on  in  the  structure  of  living  plants  that 
alters  one  kind  of  material  of  plant  growth  into  an- 
other ;    an  example  of  which  is  the   change   of  starch 
into  cellulose. 

430.  Assimilation  is  the  process  of  taking  into  the 
plant's  structure  surrounding  substances  and  convert- 
ing them  into  materials  for  plant  growth,  and  consists 
mainly  in  changing  inorganic  substances  into  vegetable 
structure.    The  bulk  of  all  woody  plants  is  largely  com- 
posed of  carbon,  hence  assimilation  in  such  plants  con- 
sists mainly  in   disintegrating   carbon   dioxide,  and  ap- 
propriating the  carbon.      Assimilation  is  carried  on  in 
the  cells  of  the  green  tissue  and  in  sunlight. 

Some  of  the  substances  suspended  in  the  watery 
fluids  of  plants  and  the  constituents  of  water  itself  are 
used  directly  by  the  protoplasm  in  the  preparation  of 
food ;  carbon  dioxide,  however,  must  first  be  decom- 
posed, in  which  process  its  oxygen  is  set  free,  and  the 
carbon  enters  into  the  ligneous  structure,  or  both  oxy- 
gen and  carbon  enter  into  new  combinations  which  the 
protoplasm  can  use.  For  example,  water  and  carbon 
dioxide  contain  all  the  materials  found  in  starch. 
These  compounds  having  been  separated  into  their 
constituents,  the  elements  reunite  in  quantities  that 


LEAF    STRUCTURE.  175 

produce  starch  and  other  carbohydrates,  as  oils,  sugars, 
gums,  etc.  These  are  either  used  to  supply  the  plant's 
immediate  wants  or  stored  in  some  of  its  organs  for 
future  use. 

The  decomposition  of  water  and  carbon  dioxide  lib- 
erates oxygen,  which  may  be  seen  in  bubbles  on  the 
submerged  parts  of  water  plants ;  this  gas  escaping 
into  the  air,  helps  to  keep  it  pure. 

431.  Movements  of  fluids. — The  root  takes  up  from 
the   earth   the  watery  substances  which   are   presented 
to   it ;    the    cells    at    the   extremities  of  the  root  and 
rootlets  are  first  gorged ;   these  impart  to  the  cells  and 
vessels  next  in  contact,  which  take  up  the  fluids  by  in- 
filtration, and  so  they  are  passed  on  up  the  stem  largely 
through  the  cells  and  vessels  of  the  last  season's  wood, 
and    outward    through    the    same    class    of    cells    and 
ducts,  along  the  branches  to  the  leaves  and  new  twigs. 
Having  reached  these  green  parts,  much  of  the  water 
passes    off    by    evaporation  ;     what    remains    becomes 
changed  by  the  action  of  sunlight  and  fitted  for  build- 
ing up  the  plant's  structure.      It  then  by  some  mode 
of  transfusion  finds  its  way  back  to  all  the  growing 
parts  of  the  plant  where  new  material  is  needed. 

432.  Circulation.  —  Careful  observation  and  experi- 
ment have  demonstrated  that  there  is  an  upward  cur- 
rent of  water   or  watery  fluids   through  the  stem,  by 
way  principally  of  the  fibre-vascular  tissues  ;    but  no 
downward  movement  has  been  detected  answering  to 
a  current.     Hence  there  is  not  a  circulation  which  cor- 
responds to  what  takes  place  in  the  higher  animals. 
Yet    the    prepared    sap    reaches    parts    of    the    plant's 
structure  lower  than  the  points  where  it  was  prepared ; 
hence  it  must  go  downward, 


176  PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 

How  the  elaborated  sap  passes  back  and  even 
downward  through  the  cells  and  vessels  that  are  at 
the  same  time  employed  conveying  the  crude  watery 
fluids  up  from  the  root  is  not  understood.  We  are  not 
acquainted  with  any  physical  or  chemical  force  which 
causes  the  crude  sap  to  creep  through  the  cells  and 
ducts  of  the  trunks  and  branches  of  great  trees,  hun- 
dreds of  feet  in  height ;  nor  is  the  transfusion  of  the 
prepared  fluids  and  cell  materials  to  every  part  of  the 
plant's  structure  where  food  is  required  less  difficult 
to  explain. 

In  fact,  observation  and  experiment  have  thus  far 
failed  to  account  for  these  mysterious  movements. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

FERTILIZATION. 

433.  The    higher    plants    produce    seeds,    each    of 
which  contains  an  embryo  of  a  new  plant.      The  seed 
has  already  been   defined   as  the  ripened  ovule  or  as 
the  fertilized  and  mature  ovule.     The  fertilization  of 
the    ovule    is    accomplished    by    the    mingling    of    the 
protoplasm  of  the  pollen   cell  with   the   protoplasm   of 
the    ovule,  which  is  brought  about  in    the    following 
manner : 

434.  Process  of  Fertilization.  —  The  ripened  anther 
opens  and  discharges  its  pollen  grains,  some  of  which, 
by  the  action  of  the  wind  or  the  aid  of  insects,  reach 
the   stigma ;    when  one  has  secured  a  lodgment,  influ- 
enced by   the   moist   surface  of  the   stigma,   it  germi- 
nates,   sends   down    through   the   tube    of   the   style   a 
tube  as  the  radicle  of  the  seed  penetrates  the  earth 


FERTILIZATION. 


177 


(Chapter  III.,  Introduction).  This  delicate  tube  pro- 
longs itself  downward  till  it  reaches  the  ovary,  enter- 
ing it ;  comes  in  contact  with 
the  ovule,  which  it  penetrates, 
and  discharges  the  proto- 
plasm of  the  pollen  grain 
upon  the  protoplasm  of  the 
germ  cell,  or  ovule,  and  thus 
fertilizes  it.  The  protoplasm 
of  the  two  cells  having  min- 
gled, the  ovule  ripens  into  a 
seed,  in  which  resides  the 
embryo  of  a  new  plant. 

The  quantity  of  proto- 
plasm in  the  ovule  or  germ 
cell  is  greater  than  that  con- 
tained in  the  pollen  grain. 

435.  Gamogenesis  (Greek 
ydpog,  marriage,  yeveais,  pro- 
duction).— Formation  by  mar- 
riage is  the  name  applied  to 
this  mode  of  fertilization. 

529,  Section  of  the  ovary  of  Polygonum  Penn- 

436.        Conjugation       iS       the    sylvanicum,  in  process  of  fertilization.    (Magni- 
fied 20  diameters.)    c,  Natural  size;  n,  one  of  the 

Of    another  mode    Which    stamens.  having  discharged  its  pollen ;  «,  a  grain 

of  pollen  and  its  tube;   s,  styles  and  stigmas;  o, 

3mpHshed   bV  the    Union    ovary>  ovule<  «ml>ry°  sac  containing  the  embry- 
onic globule.    The  extremity  of  a  pollen-tube  is 
Of     tWO     Similar     CellS     Side     by    seen  in  contact  with  the  embryo  sac. 

side,  the  combination  resulting  in  a  germinating  cell. 

437.  The  ovule  fertilized  becomes  a  new  center  of 
growth.  First  it  expands  to  a  proper  cell,  attached  to 
the  wall  of  the  sac  near  the  micropyle.  It  then,  by 
division  and  subdivision,  multiplies  itself,  and  begins  to 
take  form  according  to  the  species,  showing  cotyledon, 
plumule,  etc.,  until  fully  developed  into  the  embryo. 


IS 


178 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  BOTANY. 


In  the  case  of  the  CONIFERS  (Pines,  Cedars,  Mrs),  where  no  styles  or  stig- 
mas exist,  the  pollen  falls  directly  into  the  microphyle  of  the  naked  ovule, 
and  its  tubes  settle  into  the  tissue  of  the  nucleus.  • 

438.  Germination. —The  ovule    matures  with    the 
completion  of  the   embryo,  and  passes  into  the  fixed 
state  of  the    seed  in  which  the  embryo 

sleeps.  A  store  of  nutritive  matter, 
starch,  gluten,  etc.,  is  thoughtfully  pro- 
vided in  the  seed  for  the  use  of  the 
young  plant  in  germination,  until  its 
root  has  gained  fast 
hold  of  the  soil. 

439.  The  changes 
which    occur    in    the 
seed    at    the    recom- 
mencement of  growth 
are  simply  such  as  are 
requisite  to  reduce  its 
dry  deposits  to  a  solu- 
tion which  shall 

the    proper 

/?  II   •CrkT,TVI  Q       Tne  fertilized  cell  has  divided  itself  into  several,  of  which  c,  b 

-IOI  ina-    constitute  the  suspensor  attached  te  the  apex  of  the  sac ;  a,  em- 

tion  or  growth.  Gluten  b 

and  other  nitrogenous  matters,  oil,  starch,  etc.,  are  to 
be  changed  to  diastase  and  dextrine.  To  accomplish 
this,  water  is  taken  up,  oxygen  absorbed,  plant-food 
dissolved  and  moved  to  points  where  it  is  needed,  and 
used  in  constructing  new  cells  and  tissues. 

440.  Ripening  of  Fruits. —After  the  fruit  has  attained  its  full  growth 
the  process  of  ripening  commences,  during  which  the  pulp  becomes  gradually 
sweetened  and  softened,  chiefly  by  the  change  of  the  starch  into  more  or  less 
of  soluble  sugar.    Thus  ripening  is  to  the  pericarp  what  germination  is  to  the 
seed.    In  its  earliest  stage  the  pericarp  consists  of  structure  similar  to  that  of 
green  leaves,  composed  of  cellular,  vascular,  and  woody  tissues,  and  epider- 
mis and  stomata.     Its  distended  growth  afterward  results  from  the  accumula- 
tion of  the  flowing  sap,  which  here  finds  an  axis  incapable  of  extension.    Thus 


530,  Ovule  of  Viola  tricolor,  showing  the  process  of  fertili- 
zation; p,  pollen;  t,  tube;  r,  raphe;  c,  chalaza;  6,  primine;  a, 
secundine;  n,  nucleus;  s,  sac,  which  the  tube  appears  to  have 
Illdf    penetrated.     531,  Growth  of  the  embryo  in  Hippuris  vulgaris. 


FERTILIZATION.  179 

arrested  in  its  progress,  it  gorges  the  pistil  and  adjacent  parts,  is  condensed  by 
exhalation,  assimilated  by  their  green  tissues,  which  still  perform  the  office  of 
leaves.  Cell-formation  goes  on  rapidly  within,  and  the  excess  of  cellulose  is 
deposited  in  the  cells  as  starch.  Oxygen  is  usually  absorbed  in  excess,  acidi- 
fying the  juices. 

441.  In  the  same  way  we  account  for  the  produc- 
tion of  honey  in  the  flower.    Copious  deposits  of  starch 
are  provided  in  the  receptacle  and  disk  (§  85).    At  the 
opening  of  the  flower,  this  is  changed  to  sugar,  to  aid 
in   the    rapid   development    of   those    delicate    organs 
which    have    no    chlorophyl   wherewith    to    assimilate 
their  own  food.    The  excess  of  sugar  flows  over  in  the 
form  of  honey.     The   wise   economy  of  the  honey  is 
seen   in  fertilization.      For,  attracted  by  it,   the  insect 
enters  the  flower,  rudely  brushes  the  pollen  from  the 
now  open  anthers,  and  inevitably  lodges  some  of  its 
thousand  grains  upon  the  stigma ! 

442.  Experiment  has  proved  that  in  all  these  cases  of  the  formation  of 
sugar  from  starch,  a  molecule  of  water  is  absorbed— a  process  which  we  might 
expect,  since  starch  (Cia  H20  Oi0),  or  n(C8H10O5)  contains  proportionably  two 
less  hydrogen  and  one  less  oxygen  than  sugar  (d2  H22  On)  contains. 

443.  Pollination,   cross-fertilization,  etc. — Pollen  is 
essential  to  the  fertilization  of  the  flower.     It   must 
not  only  be  produced,  but   must  also  in  some  way  be 
conveyed   to    the    stigma,    and  lodged  on  its  surface. 
Another  requisite   is   that   the  pollen   and  pistil  shall 
either  be :  1st,  parts  of  the  same  flower ;  or,  2d,  of  other 
flowers  of  the  same  plant ;  or,  3d,  of  the  same  species ; 
or,   4th,  of  closely  related   species.      In  the    first    and 
second  cases  the  -process   may  be  called  self-fertiliza- 
tion ;    in    the    third    case,    cross-fertilization;    in    the 
fourth  case,  hybridization. 

444.  Whether   the    first,    second,   or    third  process 
shall  prevail  in  any  given  species  will  depend  on  the 


180  PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 

structure,  number,  or  arrangement  of  the  floral  organs. 
In  the  few  flowers  which  never  open,  —  the  Cleisto- 
gamous,  such  as  the  late  apetalous  flowers  of  the  Blue 
Violet,  and  also  probably  those  of  Gentiana  Andrewsii, 
only  self-fertilization  is  possible.  But  in  the  multitude 
of  open  flowers  with  both  stamens  and  pistils  exposed, 
as  in  the  Lily,  Rose,  Morning  G-lory,  either  self  or  cross 
fertilization  is  possible  unless  determined  by  some 
other  special  circumstance.  The  stigma  may  receive 
pollen  directly  from  its  own  stamens,  or  indirectly 
from  other  flowers  near  or  remote,  through  the  agency 
of  winged  insects,  humming-birds,  or  of  the  wind. 
Again  there  are  flowers  in  which  the  organs  are  so 
situated  that  self-fertilization  is  very  difficult,  or  even 
impossible.  Of  this  class  are  the  Asclepiads  and 
Orchids,  whose  pollen,  cohering  in  masses  (pollinia),  is 
inclosed  in  cavities,  and  only  dragged  forth  by  insects 
to  be  carried  to  other  flowers.  So  in  Iris,  where  the 
extrorse  anthers  and  petaloid  stigmas  are  averted  from 
each  other,  the  former  beneath,  and  shedding  its  pollen 
downward. 

445.  Dichogamous    Plants.  —  In  some  species    the 
stamens  and  pistils  are  not  cotemporary  in  the  same 
plant,   but  the   stamens   of   one  plant  mature   at  the 
same  time  with  the  pistils  of  another  plant,  and  vice 
versa.      This    necessitates    cross-fertilization,   and    the 
agency  of  the  wind  or  of  insects.      We  have  examples 
in  the  Grasses,  the  common  Plantain,  in  Scrophularia, 
etc. 

446.  Dimorphous  Plants    are    such    as   the   Mints 
(Mentha),    the    Yellow  Jessamine   (Gelsemium),  Hous- 
tonia   cserulea,  etc.      In  these  the  flowers  assume  two 
forms,  with   the  stamens  and    pistils    cotemporary   in 


FEETILIZATION.  181 

both.  In  some  the  stamens  are  exserted  and  pistil 
included,  while  in  others  the  stamens  are  included  and 
style  exserted.  This  arrangement  also  favors  cross- 
fertilization  through  insect  agency. 

447.  The  service  thus  performed  by  insects  in  be- 
half of  vegetation   is  very  important.      Numerous  spe- 
cies are  wholly  dependent  on  bees,  moths,  flies,  for  the 
dissemination   of   their    pollen,    and    consequently   for 
their  very  existence.     Many   other   species,    although 
capable  of  self-fertilization,   are  still  greatly  benefited 
by  the   intercrossings  of   pollen   which    the   visits    of 
insects  occasion.      Of  course  the  bees  have  no  idea  of 
these   benefactions.      They  visit  the  flowers  solely  for 
their  own  good.    The  nectar  which  they  seek  is  always 
so  situated  as  to  oblige  them  to  disturb  the  pollen  or 
pollinia  as  they  pass  and  repass,  get  besprinkled  with 
it,  and  so  encounter  the  stigmas  from  flower  to  flower. 

448.  It  would  seem  important  that  the  bee  or  moth 
should  confine  its  visits  during  any  one  excursion  to 
plants  of  the  same  species.     And  this  it  often  does,  as 
shown4   by  observation,    avoiding   the   mingling  of  its 
nectars   as   well    as   the    confusion  of  its  pollens.    In 
accomplishing  this,   the   insect   may   be   led   by  habit, 
becoming  accustomed,   for  the   hour,   to   one   form  of 
nectary ;  or  it  may  be  drawn  by  uniform  odor  of  the 
flowers,   or  by  their   gay  and  special  colors.     For  we 
observe  that  the  flowers  of  grasses  and  of  forest  trees 
whose  pollen   is  wafted  by  the  wind,  requiring  no  aid 
from  insects,  are  destitute  both  of  bright  colors  and  of 
fragrance,  and  of  honey. 

449.  From  these  observations  and  many  others  of 
similar  import,  it  is  inferred  that  Nature  insists  on  the 
fertilization  of  the  stigma  in  every  plant  by  all  means, 


182  PHYSIOLOGICAL    BOTANY. 

at  least  when  growing  in  its  native  home ;  also,  that 
of  the  two  general  modes,  self,  or  cross,  she  greatly 
prefers  the  latter. 

450.  What  are  the  reasons  for  this  preference? 
The  solution  of  this  inquiry  has  engaged  the  attention 
of  many  skillful  investigators,  until  it  seems  to  be 
proved  that  the  offspring  of  cross-fertilization  are  as  a 
rule  decidedly  superior  in  size,  vigor,  and  variety, 


PART    THIRD. 
SYSTEMATIC    BOTANY. 


CHAPTER    I. 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    CLASSIFICATION. 

451.  Systematic  Botany  has  for  its  object  the  ar- 
rangement of  Plants  into  Groups  and  Families  accord- 
ing to  their  characters,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating 
the    study  of   their    names,    affinities,   habits,    history, 
properties,    and    uses.      In    this    department    the  prin- 
ciples of  Organic  and  Physiological  Botany  are  applied 
and  brought  into  practical  use. 

452.  But  there  is  another  and  higher  import  in  the 
study  of  Systematic   Botany.      It   shows  us  Plants  as 
related  to  each  other  and  constituting  one  magnificent 
system.     It  reveals  the  Almighty  Creator  at  once  em- 
ployed in  the  minutest  details  and  upon  the  boundless 
whole ;   equally  attentive  to  the  perfection  of  the  indi- 
vidual in  itself,  and  to  the  completeness  of  the  System 
of  which  that  individual  forms  a  necessary  part. 

453.  The  necessity  for  such  an  arrangement  of  the  Species  will  appear 
•when   we   consider   their  immense  number.     They  meet  us  in  ever-varying 
forms  at  every  step,  clothing  the  hills,  mountains,  valleys,  and  plains.     They 
spring  up  in  hedges  and  by  the  way-side.    They  border  the  streams  and  lakes, 
and  sprinkle  over  their  surface.     They  stand  assembled  in  forests,  and  cover 
with  verdure  even  the  depths  of  the  Ocean.     Not  less  than  150,000  kinds  are 
already  distinguished,  and  the  catalogue  is  still  growing. 


184  SYSTEMATIC    BOTANY. 

454.  Into  this  vast  kingdom  of  Nature  the  student  is  introduced,  and  pro- 
poses to  acquaint  himself  with  each  and  every  object.     How  shall  he  begin? 
Evidently  he  must  begin  with  the  individual  — a  single  individual  plant.     But 
(thanks  to  Him  who  created  both  the  plant  and  the  mind— the  object  and  the 
subject),  he  is  not  left  to  continue  the  study  in  a  method  so  endless  and  so 
hopeless.     As  if  in  special  regard  to  the  measure  of  the  human  intellect  and 
the  means  of  its  culture,  the  Great  Author  of  Nature  has  grouped  these 
myriads  of  individuals  into  the  following  divisions : 

455.  Species  are  individuals  of  a  common  origin  or 
parentage  capable  of  producing  their  kind,  though  fre- 
quently differing  from   each  other  in  size,   form,  and 
other  unimportant  characters.     A  species  has  been  de- 
nned as  a  "succession  of  individuals  which  reproduces 
and  perpetuates  itself." 

456.  Variety,  or  Race,  is  a  sub-species.     This  term 
is   applied   to    individual   plants   that  possess  marked 
variations    from    specific    characters,  but  not  of  suffi- 
cient constancy  to  entitle  them  to  the  rank  of  species. 
These  differences  are  frequently  brought  about  by  the 
quality  of  the  soil  or  locality,  but  especially  by  culti- 
vation. 

Race  characters  are  perpetuated  and  become  con- 
stant by  grafting,  budding,  and  carefully  selecting 
well-marked  individuals  from  which  to  obtain  seed. 

The  desirable  characters  of  most  of  our  fruits  and 
table  vegetables  are  made  constant  in  this  way. 

457.  Genus  is  the  name  for  a  Group  of  individual 
plants  which  resemble    each    other  in    the   form    and 
structure  of  their  organs  of  Fructification  and  Repro- 
duction. 

Illustration — The  individuals  of  the  Crowfoot  Kind  differ  in  the  size  and 
color  of  their  flowers,  some  of  which  are  yellow,  others  white ;  in  the  size  and 
form  of  their  stems,  some  of  which  grow  erect,  others  prostrate  and  in  the 
shape  of  their  leaves.  Their  organs  of  Fructification,  however,  are  all  con- 
structed upon  the  same  plan,  and  the  function  of  polination  is  performed  in 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    CLASSIFICATION.  185 

the  same  manner ;  hence  they  are  grouped  together  and  constitute  the  Genus 
Ranunculus. 

458.  Orders.  —But  natural  affinities  do  not  end  here.    The  genera  are  yet 
too  numerous  for  the  ready  and  systematic  study  of  the  naturalist.    He,  there- 
fore, would  generalize  still  further,  and  reduce  the  genera  to  still  fewer  and 
broader  groups.    On  comparing  the  genera  with  each  other,  he  finds  that  they 
also  possess  in  common  certain  important  characters  which  are  of  a  more 
general  nature  than  those  which  distinguish  them  from  each  other.     By  these 
general  characters  the  genera  are  associated  into  Orders. 

459.  For  example :   comparing  such  genera  as  the  Mustard,  Radish,  Cab- 
bage, Cress,  Wallflower,   etc.,  it  is  seen  that,  while  they  differ  sufficiently  in 
their  generic  characters,  yet  they  all  have  certain  marked  resemblances  in 
their  didynamous  stamens,  siliquous  fruit,  whereby  they  are  obviously  asso- 
ciated in  the  same  Order  — the  Cruciferee.     So,  also,  the  Pines,  the  Spruces, 
the  Cedars,  the  Larches,  and  the  Cypress,  while  as  genera  they  are  obviously 
distinct,  yet  all  bear  cones  of  some  form,  with  naked  seeds ;  hence  they  are 
naturally  grouped  into  one  Order  —  the  Coniferae. 

460.  glasses.  —  In  like  manner  the  Orders,  by  traits  of  resemblance  still 
more  general,   are  associated  in  a  few  groups,  each  of  great  extent,  called 
Classes. 

461.  Intermediate   Groups,   formed  on  the  same  principles,  are  recog- 
nized as  Subgenera,  Suborders  or  Tribes,  and  Subclasses  or  Cohorts,  which 
will  be  particularly  noticed  in  another  place.     Of  the  same  nature,  also,  are 
Varieties,  which  are  groups  subordinate  to  species,  already  described  in  §  28. 

462.  Systems.  —  Two  independent  and  widely  dif- 
ferent methods  of  classifying    the   genera  have  been 
generally  approved  —  the  Artificial  Method  of  Linnaeus, 
and  the  Natural   System  of  Jussieu.      The  former  is 
founded  solely  on  characters  relating  to  the  organs  of 
fructification,  leaving  all  other  natural  affinities  out  of 
view.    It  is  simply  an  arrangement  devised  by  Linnaeus 
for  convenience  in  the  analysis  of  plants  —  as  words  in 
a  dictionary,  for  convenience  of  reference,  are  arranged 
alphabetically,  without   regard  to  their  nature.      It  is 
now  superseded  by  — 

463.  The  Natural  System. — This  method  or  system 
of  classification,  on   the   contrary,  makes  use  of  every 
natural   character    and    takes    for    its    basis    all    those 
natural  affinities  and  resemblances  of  plants  whereby 
Nature  herself  has  distinguished  them  into  groups  and 


186  SYSTEMATIC   BOTANY. 

families.  It  seizes  upon  every  character  wherein  plants 
agree  or  disagree,  and  forms  its  associations  only  upon 
the  principle  of  natural  affinity.  Hence,  each  member 
of  any  natural  group  resembles  the  other  members ; 
and  a  fair  description  of  one  will  serve,  to  a  certain 
extent,  for  all  the  rest. 

464.  The  species  and  genera  are  formed  on  this 
principle  of  classification,  as  above  stated,  and  are 
truly  natural  associations.  Individuals  altogether  simi- 
lar—  cast,  as  it  were,  in  the  same  mold  —  constitute  a 
species.  Species  agreeing  in  nearly  all  respects,  and 
differing  but  in  few,  constitute  a  genus.  Thence  the 
genera,  associated  by  their  remaining  affinities  in 
groups  of  few  or  many,  by  this  same  method  are 
organized  into  Natural  Orders  and  other  departments 
of  the  System. 


CHAPTER    II. 

NATURAL    SYSTEM. 

465.  Botanists  during  the  last  two  hundred  years 
have  labored  to  group  and  arrange  the  individuals  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom  so  that  the  natural  characters 
of  each   group   shall   be    most  like   those   of  the  next 
preceding  group. 

466.  In  1694,  Tournefort,  a  French  physician  and 
botanist,  published  a  method  of  arrangement  in  which 
he  defined  and  established  the  term  genus  as  we  now 
understand  it. 

467.  Early  in    1700,  John   Ray,   an  English  natu- 
ralist,  separated   the  vegetable   kingdom  into  the  fol- 
lowing general  groups ; 


NATURAL    SYSTEM.  187 

I.   Phanerogamia. — Plants  that  bear  Flowers. 
II.  Cryptogamia.— Plants  that  do  not  produce  Flowers. 

Suit-divisions  of  Flowering  Plants. 

1.  Dicotyledones — Plants  whose  embryo  has  two  seed 

leaves,  or  more  than  two. 

2.  Monocotyledones — Plants    whose    embryo    has    one 

seed  leaf. 

468.  Linnaeus,  a   Swedish  botanist,  in   1736,  while 
only  twenty  years  of   age,  published  the    outlines    of 
his    celebrated    sexual    system,  based  upon  the    num- 
ber, situation,   and  relative  length   of  the  pistils    and 
stamens,  which,  though  artificial  and  misleading,  earned 
for  its  author  a  deathless  fame. 

469.  In    1789,  A.  L.   de   Jussieu,    embodying   the 
grand  features   of  Ray  with  those  of  Tournefort,  laid 
the   foundation    of  the    natural   system   which,   under 
various  modifications,  has  come  down  to  us. 

470.  August  P.   de   Candolle  greatly  modified   the 
arrangement   of  Jussieu,    especially   by    reversing    the 
sequence,   placing    the    most    highly  organized    plants 
first  in  order. 

The  following  is  a  brief  sketch  of  the  latest  ar- 
rangement, and  is  substantially  the  one  mapped  out 
by  Sachs ;  the  order  of  sequence,  however,  is  changed : 

471.  Phanerogamia.  —  Flowering  plants,   or  plants 
whose  flowers  or  organs   of  fructification  are  exposed 
to  view. 

Plants  of  this  class  have  roots,  stems,  and  leaves 
through  which  bundles  of  woody  fiber  extend  ;  they 
bear  flowers,  in  special  parts  of  which  reproductive 
organs  are-  produced  that  form  embryonic  bodies 


188  SYSTEMATIC    BOTANY. 

called  seeds;    these    seeds  germinating,    become    new 
plants. 

472.  Cryptogamia.  —  Flowerless   plants    or    plants 
that  do   not  produce  seeds ;    their  reproductive   appa- 
ratus forms  cell-like    bodies,  without  cotyledons,  called 
spores,  which  germinate  indifferently  from  any  part  of 
the    cell ;    these    spore-like    seeds  of  the   Cryptogams 
germinating,  produce  new  plants. 

These  plants  are  called  flowerless,  because  their 
organs  of  reproduction  are  concealed  or  obscure ;  hence 
the  name  Cryptogamia,  or  concealed  nuptials. 

VEGETABLE    KINGDOM. 

SUB-KINGDOM    I. 

473.  Phanerogamia.  —  Plants  that  bear  proper  flow- 
ers and  produce  seeds,  derived  from  the  Greek  words 
cfxivepog,  open,  and  yd^o^,  marriage,  signifying  open  mar- 
riage. 

474.  CLASS  I.   Dicotyledones.  —  Plants  with  two  seed 
leaves  or  cotyledons.      From  the  Greek  words  &V,  two, 
and  KOTvhqduv,  a  hollow  disk,  alluding  to  the  shape  of 
the  coatings  or  walls  of  the  seed  leaves. 

475.  Angiosperms. — Plants    whose    seeds    are    in- 
closed in  a  pericarp  or  vessel.    From  the  Greek  dyyeZov, 
a  vessel,   and  a-rrepfia,  a   seed,   signifying  plants  whose 
seeds  are  inclosed  by  a  covering ;   as,  ?he  Apple,  Maple, 
Oak,  etc. 

476.  COHORT   1,  A.     Polypetalae. — Dicotyledonous 
plants    whose    flowers    have    both   calyx    and    corolla ; 
corolla  composed   of  separate  petals,  which  are  some- 
times slightly  coherent  at  their  bases ;  as,  the  flowers 
of  the  Buttercup,  Apple,  Strawberry,  etc. 

477.  COHORT    2,  B.    Gamopetalse.  —  Dicotyledonous 


NATURAL    SYSTEM.  189 

plants  whose  flowers  have  both  calyx  and  corolla,  with 
petals  more  or  less  united  ;   as,  Elder,  Arrow-wood,  etc. 

478.  COHORT  3,  C.  Apetalae. — Dicotyledonous  plants, 
whose  flowers  have  a   calyx  but  no  corolla,  and  some- 
times neither  ;  as,  Ragweed,  Goosefoot,  etc. 

479.  CLASS  II.   Gymnosperms,  Dicotyledones  or  Poly- 
cotyledones.  —  Plants  whose  seed  is  not  inclosed   by  a 
vessel    or    pericarp,    derived  tfrom    the    Greek    words 
ytyzvo^,    naked,    and    anepfm,    seed,    naked    seed.      Stem 
elongated,  solid  ;   leaves  nearly  parallel-veined ;  flowers 
not  perfect ;    pistil  scale-like ;    no  stigma ;    ovules  not 
inclosed  in  a  vessel ;    embryo  with  two  or  more  oppo- 
site or  whorled  cotyledons. 

480.  COHORT  4,  D.   Coniferae. — Pines,  Spruces,  and 
other  cone-bearing  trees  and  shrubs.- 

481.  CLASS  III.  Monocotyledones. — Plants  whose  em- 
bryo has  one  cotyledon,  or  one  seed  leaf.     Greek  [i6vo$, 
alone  or  one,  and  Korv^dov.     Blade  of  the  leaf  usually 
divided  into  two  parts  by  a  prominent  midrib,  with  veins 
extending   from  the  base  to  the  apex  parallel   to  the 
midrib ;    flowers  usually  three-parted ;   root  not  axial. 

This  class  is  separated  into  three  cohorts. 

482.  COHORT  5,  E.   Spadiciflorae. — Monocotyledonous 
plants,  with  flowers  on  a  spadix,  frequently  enveloped 
by  a  spathe ;   Palms,  Calla,  and  pond  weeds. 

483.  COHORT   6,  F.    Petaloideae. — Monocotyledonous 
plants  whose  flowers  are  usually  perfect  and  complete ; 
floral   envelope   three-parted  and  double ;    outer  whorl 
colored  green ;   as,  Lily,  Lily  of  the  Valley,  etc. 

484.  COHORT   7,   G.     Glumiferae. — Monocotyledonous 
plants  whose  floral  envelope  is  chaff-like ;   ovary  single, 
with  one  ovule ;    as,  grass-like  plants,  Wheat,  Rye,  the 
Sedges,  etc. 


190 


SYSTEMATIC    BOTANY. 


Pig.  532,  c,  A  Fern  ;  Polypodium  vulgare.  a,  Club-moss  ;  Lycopodium  dendroideum.  6,  Equisetum 
(Scouring  Rush  or  Horse  Tail).  d,  a  Liverwort  Moss  ;  Marchantia.  e,  a  Fungus  or  Mushroom  ; 
Agaricus,  in  three  stages  of  growth. 

SUB-KINGDOM   n. 

485.  Cryptogamia. — Plants    that    do    not   produce 
proper  flowers.      From  the  Greek  upv-rrros,  hidden,  and 
ya>oc,  marriage. 

486.  CLASS  I.  Pt eridophy ta. —  Vascular  cryptogams- 
Perns  and  their  allies.      From   Greek  words  Trrep^,   a 
fern,  and  0vrov,  a  plant,  signifying  a  fern-like  plant. 

This  class  is  divided  into  three  cohorts. 

487.  COHOKT  1,   H.     Lycopodinse   (Club  Mosses). — 
Stem  herbaceous,  rooting   at  the  nodes  and  creeping, 
simple    or    branched,    sometimes    tree-shaped ;    foliage 
small ;    leaf  one-nerved ;    fructification  at   the  base  of 
the  leaf  or  in  terminal  catkins  on  the  branches.    Name 
from   Greek  words    MKO?,  a  wolf,  and  rrovg,  a  foot,  due 
to  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  roots  to  the  foot  of 
a  wolf. 


NATUKAL    SYSTEM.  191 

488.  COHORT  2,  I.   Equisetacae  (Horse  Tails).  —  Stem 
straight,   simple   or   branched,    cylindrical,    channeled ; 
stiff-jointed  ;      sheathed    at    the    joints ;    tops    of    the 
sheaths  toothed.    From  Latin  equus,  a  horse,  and  seta, 
a  bristle  or  hair ;   Equisetum,  scouring  rush. 

489.  COHORT   3,  J.   Filicinae. — Ferns  proper.     Stem 
a  horizontal  creeping  rhizome,  sometimes  erect ;  foli- 
age pinnate  or  variously  divided  ;  veins  forked ;   fructi- 
fication on  the  back  or  edge  of  the  frond.    Name  from 
Latin  filix,  a  fern ;    Osmunda,  Flowering  Fern. 

THE   FOLLOWING-   FIVE    CLASSES 

are    not    treated  in    this    book,   and  therefore  will  be 
briefly  noticed  only. 

490.  CLASS  II.   Bryophyta. — Mosses  and  their  allies 
(Greek  ftwov,  a  moss,  (pvrov,  a  plant). 

Sub-class  1.   Hepaticse,  Liverworts. 
Sub-class  2.  Musci,  Mosses. 

491.  CLASS  III.    Carpophyta.  —  Spore-fruited  plants 
(Greek  Kaprrog,  fruit,  0vrov). 

Sub-class  1.   Coleochaetese,  Green  fresh-water  plants 
with  few  spores. 

Sub-class  2.  Floridese,  Red  or  purple  marine  plants. 
Sub-class  3.   Ascomycetes,  Parasites,  spores  in  sacs. 
Sub-class  4.   Basidiomycetes,  Spores  on  stalks. 
Sub-class  5.   Characea3,  Green  fresh-water  plants. 

492.  CLASS  IV.    Odphyta.  —  Plants  with  egg-shaped 
spores  (Greek  wov,  an  egg,  and  fyvrov). 

Sub-class  1.  Zoosporae,  Spore  cells  locomotive. 
Sub-class  2.   CEdogonieae,  Thread-like  cellular  body. 
Sub-class  3.   Cceloblastese,  Thread-like  tubular  body. 
Sub-class  4.   Fucacese,  Large,  color  olive  green. 

493.  CLASS  V.   Zygophyta. — Unisexual  plants  (Greek 


192  SYSTEMATIC    BOTANY. 


,  a  pair,  and  4>vr6v),  plants  in  which  the  sexes  are 
united. 

Sub-class  1.  Zoosporeae,  Cells  capable  of  motion. 
Sub-class  2.   Conjugatse,  Cells  fixed. 

494.  CLASS  VI.    Protophyta.  —  First  or  most  simple 
class  of  plants   (Greek  Trp&To?,  first,  and  0vr6v).     These 
plants  are  the  lowest  vegetable  organisms,  and  consist 
of  single  cells,  or  strings  of  cells. 

Sub-class  1.  Myxomycetes,  Slime  molds,  naked  pro- 
toplasm, without  regular  form. 

Sub-class  2.    Schizomycetes,  Bacteria  minute  cells. 
Sub-class  3.   Cyanophycese,  Green  Slimes. 

495.  Orders    or   Families  succeed  to  the  Cohorts. 
The  Natural  Order  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of 
all   the    associations.      On   the   accuracy  and    distinct- 
ness of  the  characters  of  these  groups  botanists  have 
bestowed    the    highest    degree    of    attention,    and    the 
student's  progress  will  largely  depend  upon  his  acquaint- 
ance with  them. 

496.  Orders    are    formed    by    associating    together 
those  genera  which  have  the  most  intimate  relations 
to    each    other,   or  to  some  one  genus  previously  as- 
sumed    as    the     type.      As    species    form    genera,    so 
genera  form  Orders.    In  regard  to  extent,  they  differ 
widely  ;   some  consisting  of  a  single  genus,  as,  Plata- 
naceae,  while  others  comprehend  hundreds  of  genera, 
as,  Compositae.    For  convenience  in  analysis,  the  larger 
Orders  are  broken  up  into  Sub-orders  or  Tribes. 

The  Flowering  plants  of  the  whole  world,  known  to  botanists,  have  been 
grouped  under  200  Orders,  7,500  Genera,  and  100,000  species.  About  80,000  of 
these  species  are  Dicotyledons,  and  the  remaining  20,000  are  Monocotyledons. 

It  is  a  high  accomplishment  in  a  botanist  to  possess  an  extensive  ac- 
quaintance with  individual  plants.  The  ability  to  determine  readily  the  genus 
and  species  to  which  a  plant  belongs  depends  largely  upon  an  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  the  characters  of  the  orders  and  tribes. 


RULES    IN    NOMENCLATURE.  193 

497.    The  Natural  System,  then,  with  all  its  divis- 
ions,   groups,    and    subordinations,    may    be    exhibited 
at  one  view,  as  follows : 
KINGDOM, 
SUB-KINGDOMS, 
CLASSES, 
COHORTS, 
ORDERS, 
SUB-ORDERS,  or 
TRIBES, 
GENERA, 
SUB-GENERA, 
SPECIES,  or 
RACES. 


CHAPTER    III. 

RULES    IN    NOMENCLATURE. 

498.  The  Names  of  the  Orders  are  Latin  adjectives, 
feminine,  plural   (to  agree  with  plantce,  plants,  under- 
stood), usually  derived  from   the   name    of    the    most 
prominent,  or  leading  genus,  by  changing  or  prolong- 
ing the  termination  into  acece,  as  Hosacece,  the  Rose 
tribe,  Papaveracece,    the   Poppy   tribe,   from  Rosa  and 
Papaver.     Earlier  names,  however,  derived  from  some 
leading  character  in   the  Order,  and  with  various  ter- 
minations,   are    still    retained.     Thus,    Composite^,  with 
compound  flowers ;   Labiatce,  with  labiate  flowers. 

499.  Generic   Names  are  Latin  substantives,  arbi- 
trarily formed,  often  from  some  medicinal  virtue,  either 
supposed  or  real,  or  from  some  obvious  character  of 
the  genus ;   sometimes  from  some  peculiar  form  of  the 
flower,  or  from  the  name  of  some   distinguished  bot- 


194  SYSTEMATIC    BOTANY. 

anist,  or  patron  of  botany,  to  whom  the  genus  is  thus 
said  to  be  dedicated.  Also  the  ancient  classic  names, 
either  Latin  or  Greek,  are  often  retained.  Examples  of 
all  these  modes  of  construction  will  be  seen  hereafter. 

500.  Specific    Names   are  usually  Latin  adjectives, 
singular,  and  agreeing  in  gender  with  the  name  of  the 
genus  to  which  they  belong.    They  are  mostly  founded 
upon  some  distinctive  character  of  the  species ;  as,  Viola 
blanda,  Sweet-scented  Violet ;  V.  cucullata,  Hood-leaved 
Violet.      Frequently  the  species    is    named  after  some 
other  genus,  which,  in  some  respect,  it  resembles ;   as, 
Viola  delphinifolia,  Larkspur  Violet. 

501.  Commemorative  Specific  Names. — SPECIES,  like 
genera,  are  also  sometimes  named  in  commemoration 
of  distinguished  persons.     The  rules  given  by  Lindley, 
for  the  construction  of  such   names,  are :    1  st.   If  the 
person  is   the   discoverer,  the   specific  name  is  a  sub- 
stantive   in    the    genitive  case,    singular    number;    as, 
Viola    Selkirkiij    Selkirk's    Violet  ;     Lobelia    Kalmii, 
Kalm's  Lobelia.      2d.  If  the  name  is  merely  conferred 
in  honor  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  dedicated,  it  is 
an  adjective  ending  in  nus,  na,  or  num  (according  to 
the  gender  of  the  generic  name) ;    as,  Tulipa  Gesneri- 
ana,   Gesnerian   Tulip,   or   Gesner's  Tulip  ;   Erica  Lin- 
neana,  Linnaeus1  Heath. 

502.  Rules  for  the  use  of  Capitals.— The  names  of 
the  order,   the   sub-order  or  tribe,   and   of  the  genus, 
should   always  commence  with   a  capital  letter.      The 
name  of  the  species  should  never  commence  with   a 
capital  except   in   the  following  cases:    (1),  when  it  is 
derived  from  the  name  of  a  person  or  of  a  country,  as 
Phlox  Drummondii,  Aquilegia  Canadensis ;    (2),  when 
it  is  a  substantive,  as  Delphinium  Consolida. 


BOTANICAL    ANALYSIS.  195 

503.  Synonyms.  —  Very  frequently,  the  same  species  has  been  described 
by  different  (or  even  by  the  same)  authors,  under  different  names.     In  such 
cases  it  becomes  a  question,  often  of  difficult  solution,  which  name  is  to  be 
adopted.     Obviously,  the  prior  name,  that  is,  the  original  one,  if  it  can  be 
ascertained,  is  entitled  to  the  most  respect;    and  it  is  a  rule  with  botanists 
to  adopt  this  name,  unless  it  has  been  previously  occupied,  or  be  strongly 
objectionable  on  some  other  account.     All  other  names  are  synonyms. 

504.  Authorities.— In  the  flora  which  accompanies  this  work,  immediately 
after  the  Genus  we  insert  the  abbreviated  name  of  the  author  by  whom  it 
was  originally  published,  with  a  comma  between,  thus:   Trifolium,  Tourn. 
After  a  species  the  authority  is  inserted  without  a  comma,  as  T.  repens  L.,— 
that  is  to  say,  Trifolium  repens  (of)  Linnaeus.     In  changing  the  generic  rela- 
tions of  a  species  (as  subsequent  writers  often  deem  necessary),  it  is  a  custom 
for  the  author  of  the  change  to  annex  his  own  name,  or  a  blank,  instead  of 
the   original   authority.     The   custom  is   often   unjust,  and  always  liable  to 
abuse.     It  offers  a  bribe  for  innovations  in  the  Q-enera,  and  recent  works 
abound  in  changes  which  otherwise  could  scarcely  be  accounted  for.     When 
such  changes  become  necessary,  the  just  and  proper  rule  (actually  adopted  in 
Conchology)  is  the  following.    Let  the  original  specific  name  and  authority  both 
be  retained,  the  latter  in  parenthesis,  thus,  Lychnis  G-ithago  (Linn.)  —  origi- 
nally Agrostemma  G-ithago  Linn.    This  method  is  often  but  not  always  used 
in  the  present  work. 

Authorities  for  our  species  of  exotic  cultivated  plants,  for  want  of  space, 
have  all  been  here  omitted. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

BOTANICAL     ANALYSIS. 

505.  Botanical  Analysis   is  the   application   of   the 
rules    and    principles  of    botany  to    the   study  of   the 
natural  plant,  in  order  to  determine  its  place  in  the 
system,  its  names,  history,  uses — all  that  is  on  record 
concerning  it.      In  the  flowering   months,  the  learner 
will  constantly  meet  with  new  forms  of  bloom  ;   and 
if  he  is  duly  interested    in    the   science,  he    will    not 
fail    to  seize    and  analyze  each  new  flower  while  the 
short  hour    of    its  beauty   may   last.      Thus  in  a  few 
seasons,  or  even  in  one,  he  may  become  well  acquainted 
with  the  flora  of  the  vicinity  where  he  dwells. 

506.  Suppose,  now,  the   pupil  to   be   in   possession 
of  an  unknown  plant   in   flower  and  fruit.      The  first 


196  SYSTEMATIC    BOTANY. 

requisite  is,  its  Natural  Order,  and  the  first  step  in 
analysis  is  an  examination  of  the  several  organs,  one 
by  one,  until  the  general  structure  is  well  understood. 
This  done,  the  experienced  botanist,  who  has  in  mem- 
ory the  characters  of  all  the  Orders,  might  determine 
at  once  to  which  of  them  the  plant  in  question  belongs. 
But  the  beginner  must  be  content  with  a  longer  course 
of  inquiry  and  comparison,  —  a  course  which  might  be 
indefinitely  long  and  vague  without  the  use  of  — 

507.  Analytical    Tables. — These    are    designed    to 
shorten  and  define  to  exactness  the  processes  of  anal- 
ysis.     Those  which   appear   in   the   present   work   are 
peculiar  in  form,  and  more  copious  and  complete  than 
the   tables   of   any   other   similar  work.     These   tables, 
with  proper  use  in  connection  with  the  specimen,  will 
very  rarely  fail  to  conduct  the  inquirer  almost  imme- 
diately to  the  right  Order,  Genus,  and  Species. 

We  subjoin  a  few  examples  of  the  analysis  of  par- 
ticular species  by  the  aid  of  these  tables.  If  the  exer- 
cise be  conducted  in  the  class-room,  the  successive 
steps  in  the  process  (indicated  by  the  numbers  1,  2,  3, 
etc.,  below)  may  be  assigned,  in  order,  to  each  pupil 
in  the  class. 

ANALYSIS   OF  A  POLYPETALOTJS   HERB. 

508.  To   determine  the   Cohort.  —  A  good  specimen  of  a  little  yellow- 
flowered  herbaceous  plant,  common  in  the  grassy  fields  of  cool  regions,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  now  in  the  hands  of  each  pupil  of  the  class.     (1.)  Tne  first  pupil, 
reading  (if  necessary)  the  characteristic  of  each  sub-kingdom,  pronounces  the 
plant  one  of  the  Phaenogamia,  and  refers  the  next  pupil  to  the  Classes  I., 

n.,  or  m. 

(2.)  The  next  reads  the  characters  of  those  Classes,  and  comparing  the 
specimen  (which  has  net-veined  leaves  and  5-merous  flowers),  concludes  that  it  is 
an  Exogen.  Refer  next  to  the  Class  I. 

(3.)  "Stigmas  present.     Seeds  inclosed  in  vessels." 

"  Stigmas  none.  Seeds  naked.  (Pines,  Spruces,  etc.) "  Our  plant  has 
stigmas,  etc.,  and,  moreover,  is  not  a  Pine,  Spruce,  etc.  It  is,  therefore,  an 
Angiosperm.  Refer  next  to  Cohorts  1,  2,  or  3. 


BOTANICAL    ANALYSIS.  197 

(4.)  "Corolla  with  the  petals  distinct."  This  characterizes  our  plant,  and 
it  is  pronounced  one  of  the  Polype talae.  Refer  them  to  A. 

509.  To  determine   the   Order,  the  (5th)  pupil  reads  the  first  alternative, 
or  triplet,  noted  by  a  star  (*),  and  comparing  his  plant,  finds  it  to  corre- 
spond with  the  first  line,  for  it  is  an  "herb  with  alternate  leaves."    Pass  now 
to  (12). 

(6.)  "  Mowers  regular  or  nearly  so.     Fruit  never  a  legume." 

"Mowers  irregular,"  etc.     The  flower  is  regular.    Pass  to  (14). 

Again,  a  (7th)  pupil  reads,  "  Stamens  3—10  times  as  many  as  the  petals." 
''Stamens  few  and  definite."  The  stamens  are  many.  Pass  to  (15). 

(8.)  The  next  pupil  reads,  compares,  and  determines  that  the  stamens  are 
"perigynous  on  the  base  of  the  calyx,"  and  announces  the  letter  (d)  as  the 
reference  to  the  next  alternative.  (9.)  Next,  the  pupil  reads  and  compares 
bis  specimen  with  the  triplet  (tf),  and  concludes  that  the  sepals  are  5,  and 
Imbricated  in  the  bud.  Consequently,  it  is  announced  that  the  plant  in  hand 
belongs  to  the  Order  ROSACES. 

510.  To  determine  the  Genus. — After  a  careful  comparison  of  their 
specimen  with  the  diagnosis  of  the  Roseworts  (Order  44),  in  order  to  verify 
the  analysis  thus  far,  the  learner  or  the  class  will  then  consult  the  table  of 
the  Q-enera.     (10.)  A  pupil  reads  the  couplet  marked  A.,  and  determines  that 
the  "Ovary  is  superior,  fruit  not  inclosed,"  etc.     Pass  to  (a). 

(11.)  "Carpels  00.  Calyx  persistent,  with  5  bractlets  added,"  characterizes 
our  plant.  Pass  to  (/),  which  is  Tribe  V.  Pass  on  to  (g).  (12.)  The  next 
pupil  determines  that  the  "  style  is  deciduous."  Pass  to  (k).  (13.)  "  Torus 
spongy  or  dry,"  is  true  of  our  specimens.  Pass  to  (I).  (14.)  "Bractlets  5" 
reads  the  next,  and  announces  the  plant  to  be  a  Potentilla.  Now  all  turn  to 
Q-enus  13,  and  together  verify  this  result  by  reading  and  comparing  the  stated 
character  of  the  genus. 

511.  To  determine   the   Species.  —  (15.)    As  our  plant  has  "  stamens  OO 
and  flowers  yellow"  it  must  be  a  true  Potentilla.     Pass  to  (a).     (16.)  "Leaves 
palmately  3-foliate  "  suits  our  plant.     It  is,  therefore,  either  species  No.  3,  4, 
or  5.     Lastly  (17),  after  a  due  comparison  of  their  plant  with  each  of  these 
three  species,  it  is  determined  that  it  is  P.  Norvegica. 

ANALYSIS    OF   A   MONOCOTYLEDON. 

512.  A  grass-like,  blue-flowered  herb  is  now  supposed  to  have  been  dis- 
covered and  distributed  to  the  Class  for  analysis.     Having  (1)   determined 
that  it  is  a  Monocotyledon  (for  it  has  "  parallel- veined  leaves  and  3-parted 
flowers "),  they  would  now  (2)  determine  its  Class,  which  is  HI. 

"  Mowers  without  glumes,  and  colored,"  etc. 

"Mowers  with  green  alternate  glumes,  and  no  perianth."  The  first  line 
is  adopted,  and  the  plant  agrees  with  Petaloideae.  Pass  next  to  (t)  Cohorts 
5th  or  6th,  and  read, 

(3.)  "Cohort  5.     Mowers  on  a  spadix,  apetalous  or  incomplete." 

"  Cohort  6.  Flowers  complete,  with  a  double  perianth "  —  which 
answers  to  the  specimens  in  hand,  and  it  is  seen  to  belong  to  the  Petaloideee. 
Pass  to  P. 

(4.)  The  next  pupil  having  read  and  compared  the  first  couplet  under 
"F,  Cohort  6,  Petaloideae,"  chooses  the  second  line.  Pass  to  No.  2.  (5.) 
"Perianth  tube  adherent  to  the  ovary"  is  adopted.  Pass  to  (4).  (6.)  "Flow- 

.>>"O 
» TT  W  T  TT  » 


198  SYSTEMATIC    BOTANY. 

ers  perfect."  The  second  line  of  this  couplet  is  true  of  our  plant.  Next  pass 
to  (&).  The  (7.)  pupil  reads  "Anthers  3  or  6,"  which  is  true  of  the  plant. 
Pass  to  (c).  (8.)  "  Perianth  glabrous  outside "  is  true.  Next  read  (d).  (9.) 
"  Anthers  3,  opening  lengthwise,  outward,"  is  also  true,  and  our  plant  is  thus 
traced  to  the  order  IRIDACE.E. 

513.  To  determine  the  Q-enus  and  Species  under  the  Irids,  Order  146,  is 
the  next  and  the  last  step.  Having  carefully  compared  their  specimens  with 
the  characters  ascribed  to  the  Irids,  the  pupils  next  apply  to  the  Table  of  the 
Q-enera.  (10.)  "Mowers  regular  and  equilateral,"  in  the  first  dilemma,  is 
chosen.  Bead  the  (*)  couplet  next.  (11.)  "  Sepals  similar  to  the  petals  in 
form,  size,  and  position  "  is  true.  Next  to  (a).  (12.)  "  Stamens  monadelphous. 
Elowers  small,  blue.  Plants  grass-like,"  describes  the  plant  truly,  and  it  must 
be  a  Sisyrhinchium.  They  turn  to  G-enus  7,  and  verify  by  reading  its  char- 
acters. Lastly,  the  brief  diagnoses  of  the  two  species  are  compared,  and  the 
plant  is  found  to  be  S.  Bermudiana. 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY. 


a  (a,  privative),  prefixed  to  a  Greek  word, 

signifies  without;    as  aphyllous,  without 

leaves. 

ab  brS  vl  S'tions,  page  ?,  Part  IV. 
a  b6r'tion,  non-development  of  apart. 
ab  sSrp'tion,  199. 
ae'au  le"s'9ent,  or  a  eau  ISs'eent,  apparently 

stemless,  223. 

ae  c6s'so  ry,  something  ,'uperadded. 
a«  erfis'cent,  growing  after  flowering,  109. 
ae  eum'bent,  lying  against  a  thing,  183. 
a?'er  ose  or  a^'er  oue,  needle-shaped,  299. 
a  ehS'ni  urn,  plural,  a  «hS'ni  a,  151. 
ach'lS  m^d'e  ous,  without  floral  envelopes. 
a  slc'tl  lar,  finely  needle-shaped. 
a  cot  y  18d'o  nous,  without  cotyledons. 
ac'ro  gens,  summit  growers. 
a  etl'le  ate,  armed  with  prickles. 
a  etl'mi  nate,  drawn  out  into  a  point,  307. 
a  €fite',  ending  in  a  sharp  angle,  307. 
ad  hSr'ent,  growing  to,  82,  94. 
fld'nate,  growing  fast  to,  114. 
ad  ven  tl'tious,  growing  out  of  the  usual  or 

normal  position,  as  roots,  206. 
8  er  a'tion,  same  as  respiration,  483. 
ses  tl  va'tiou,  335. 

af  fln'i  ty,  resemblance  in  essential  organs. 
age  of  trees,  47. 

Sg'gre  gate,  assembled  close  together. 
a  glu  ma'ceous,  without  glumes,  the  same  as 

pgt'al  oid,  483. 
air-bladders,  323. 
air-plants,  208. 
8'la,  wing  ;  a'lae,  wings,  101. 
a' late,  winged,  274.     ' 
al  bfi'men,  179. 
al  btTmi  nous,  178. 
al  bur'num,  sap-wood,  418. 
ai'gse,  seaweeds. 
al'ter  nate,  215,  262. 

ai've  o  late,  with  pits  like  the  honey-comb. 
ftm'ent,  a  deciduous  spike,  357. 
a  mOr'phous,  without  definite  form. 
am  phlt'ro  pous,  141. 
am  pl6x'I  caul,  stem- clasping,  275,  311. 
a  nary  sis,  botanical,  510. 
a  nas  to  mo'sis,  reunion  of  vessels  cr  veins. 
a  nat'ro  pous,  i41. 
an  clp'l  tal,  two-edged. 
an  dne'cium,  110. 
an  dr6£'y  nous,  stamens  and  pistils  on  the 

same  peduncle. 
an'gi  o  sperms,  475. 
In'i  mal,  15. 

8n'nu  al,  yearly  (sc.  plants'),  40. 
an'nu  lar  cells,  378. 
an  tS'ri  or,  parts  (of  a  flower)  adjacent  to  the 

bract. 

an'thel  mln'tic,  expelling  or  killiny  worms. 
an'ther,  111,  113. 


an  thg'sis,  the  opening  of  the  flower  ;  flower- 
ing. 

a  pgt'a  lae,  478. 

a  pgt'al  ous,  without  petals. 

SpVyl  lous  or  a  phyl'lous,  without  leaves. 

a  p5ph'y  sis,  a  swelling,  e.  g.,  under  the 
thecce  of  some  mosses. 

ftp  pa  ra'tus,  4. 

ap  pen  dle'fl  lar  organs,  77. 

ap  prgssed',  closely  applied  but  not  adhering 
to  ;  the  same  as  adpressed. 

ap'ter  ous,  without  wings. 

a  quat'ic,  living  in  water. 

ft  rach'noid,  resembling  cobwebs. 

ar'bor  ous,  arborescent,  tree-like. 

are'fl  ate,  arched  or  curved  like  a  bow. 

a  r6'o  Jiate,  having  the  surface  divided  into 
little  spaces  or  areas. 

ar'il,  an  extra  seed-covering,  175. 

a  ris'tate,  with  an  arista  or  awn  (barley). 

armed,  bearing  prickles,  spines,  etc. 

ar  tle'fl  lat  ed,  jointed,  as  the  culm  of  wheat. 

Ss  cSnd'Ing,  arising  obliquely  •  assurgent. 

fts  eld'  I  a,  leaves  holding  water,  322. 

as  slm'i  la'tion,  430. 

at  tgn'fl  ate,  becoming  slender  or  thin. 

&u  rle'fl  late,  ear-bearing,  291. 

awn,  the  beard  of  barley  and  the  like. 

aVi  al  root,  200. 

ftx'il  (arm-pit),  the  angle  between  the  petiole 
and  the  branch,  on  the  upper  side. 

ax'il  la  ry,  growing  out  of  the  axils. 

ax'is,  ascending,  211,  212;  erect,  procumbent, 
prostrate,  trailing,  decumbent,  212 ;  excur- 
rent,  solvent,  226  ;  descending,  197. 

bfte'eate,  berry-like  ;  covered  with  pulp. 

ban'ner,  same  as  vexillum,  101. 

bftn'yan  tree,  207. 

bark,  416. 

tofts/i  lar,  basal,  attached  to  the  base,  186. 

bftst-cells,  wood-cells  of  bark,  416. 

bSaked,  ending  in  an  extended  tip. 

bSard'ed,  with  tufts  of  long,  weak  hairs. 

bSr'ry,  159. 

bi,  bis,  twice  (in  compound  words). 

bl'eol  or,  two  colored. 

bi  «us'pid  i.te,  with  two  points  or  cusps. 

bi  dgn'tate,  with  two  teeth. 

bi  gn'ni  al,  of  two  years,  41. 

bl'fld,  cleft  into  two  parts. 

bi  fO'li  ate,  with  two  leaflets. 

bi  f  flr'«ate,  twice  forked,  or  merely  forked. 

bi  la'bl  ate,  two-lipped. 

bl'nate,  303. 

bi  pln'nate,  304. 

bi  pin  nat'i  fid,  twice  pinnatifld.    (Fig.  342.) 

bi  tgr'nate,  twice  ternate,  305. 

bi'vaived,  two-valved. 

blade.    See  lamina,  271. 


200 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


blanched  plants,  whitened  for  the  want  of 

light. 

bloom,  aflne  white  powder,  on  some  plants. 
border,  «ji,  92. 
botany  defined,  18. 
botany,  elementary,  20,  368,  etc. 
botany,  physiological,  21,  368. 
botany,  systematic,  22,  153. 
braeh'i  ate,  with  opposite,  spreading  branches 

(arms).     (Pig.  275.) 
brSet,  329,  345. 
brae'te  ate,  having  bracts. 
brae'te  Dies  or  bractlets,  345. 
branches,  34,  214. 
bristles,  stiff,  sharp  hairs. 
bry  Sph'y  $,  490. 
bud,  33. 
budding,  ?59. 

buds,  axillary,  247  ;  accessory,  250. 
buds,  adventitious,  251. 
buds,  suppression  of,  248. 
bud-scales,  246,  319. 
bulb,  240  ;  tunicated,  242 ;  scaly,  242. 
bulb'lets,  260. 

ca  dd'cous,  dropping  off  early,  103. 

cses'pi  tose,  forming  tufts  or  turf. 

cai'9e  o  late,  slipper-shaped. 

caTy  cine,  calyx-like. 

ca  lyc'tl  late,  having  an  outer  calyx  or  calyx- 
like  involucre. 

ca  lyp'trsi,  the  hood  of  the  sporange  (spore- 
case)  of  a  moss. 

ca'lyx,  the  outer  floral  envelope,  51. 

cftm'bl  urn.  417. 

cam  pSn'fi  late,  bell-shaped,  102. 

cSm'py  15t'ro  poiis,  141. 

cSn'a  Hc'fl  late,  channeled. 

ca  ngs'cent,  grayish  white. 

cap'il  la  ry,  capittaceous,  hair-shaped. 

c&p'i  tate,  head-shaped,  growing  in  dose  clus- 
ters or  heads. 

ca  plt'fl  lum,  a  little  head,  861. 

cSp're  o  late,  bearing  tendrils. 

capsule,  167. 

sar'bon  dl  ox'Ide,  411. 

carl'na,  101. 

cSr'i  nate,  boat-shaped,  having  a  sharp  ridge 
beneath. 

ciir'pel,  carpellary,  126. 

ciir'po  phore,  149,  151.    (Fig.  17,7.) 

car  ti  lag!  nous,  Jlrm  and  tough  in  texture, 
like  cartilage. 

c&r'un  cle,  175. 

c3r  y  o  phyl  IS 'ceo us,  100. 

car  y  Sp'sis,  153. 

cat'kin,  357.    (See  ament.) 

ca.u'dex,  227. 

cau  16s' cent,  223. 

cau'lis,  223. 

cau'line,  relating  to  the  stem,  262. 

ceTlu  lar  tissue,  396. 

cell,  368. 

cell-growth,  377-384. 

ceTlu  lar  bark,  416. 

c6Mu  lose,  371. 

cen  trif '  11  gal  inflorescence,  35. 

cen  trip'e  tal  inflorescence,  352. 

96ph'a  lous,  same  as  capitate. 

cS're  al,  relating  to  grains,  corn,  etc. 

per'nu  ous,  nodding  (less  inclined  than  pen- 
dulous). 

chaff,  chaffy,  349.    (See  paleaceous ) 

cha  IS'za,  140. 

channeled,  hollowed  out  like  a  gutter. 


ehar  ta'ceous,  with  the  texture  of  paper. 

chlO'ro  phyl,  373,  381,  435. 

chor'I  sis,  76. 

9ll'i  ate,  fringed  with  marginal  hairs. 

9l'on  or  sion,  218. 

ci  ne're  ous,  ashy  gray,  ash  color. 

9ir'9i  nate,  rolled  inward  from  the  top,  255. 

cir  cu  la'tion  of  sap,  432. 

cir'cum  scis'  slle,  149. 

clr'rhose,  furnished  with  a  tendril. 

cirrhose  roots,  206. 

classes,  natural,  £01. 

elas  si  fi  cS'tion,  artificial,  £03. 

cla'vate,  club-shaped.  . 

co  arct'ate  or  co  arc'tate,  contracted,  drawn 


€8e'eus,  a  berry ;  coc'^I (plural),  the\-seeded 

carpels  of  separable  fruits. 
eftch'le  ate,  spiral,  like  tJie  snail-shell. 
co  h6  sion,  82. 
cO'horts,  461. 

ool  lat'er  al,  placed  side  by  side. 
coTlum,  199. 
col'ored,  of  any  color  except  green,  which  in 

botany  is  not  a  color,  while  white  is. 
cSl'umn,  the  combined  stamens  and  styles. 
eO'ma,  173. 
cQm'mis  sflre,  the  joined  faces  of  the  carpels 

of  the  cremocarp,  151. 
com'mon,  belonging  alike  to  several. 
complete  flower,  GO. 
com'pli  cate,  folded  up  upon  itself. 
compound  leaf,  300. 
compound  flower,  348. 
com  pressed',  flattened  on  the  sides,  274. 
con  du'pli  cate,  folded  on  itself  lengthwise. 
cone,  169. 

cOn'flu  ent,  uniting;  same  as  coherent, 
con  glOm'er  ate,  clustered  or  crowded. 
cQn'ju  gate,  coupled  Joined  by  pairs. 
cfin'nate,  311. 

con  ngc'tile,  connective,  113,  114. 
con  nlv'ent,  converging,  coming  together. 
con  tln'u  ous,  the  reverse  of  jointed, 
con  tSrt'ed,  twisted,  338. 
con'vo  lute,  256,  339. 
cOr'date,  heart-shaped,  291. 
cO'ri  a'ceous,  leather-like,  315. 
c6rm,  233. 

c6r'ne  ous,  horn-like  in  texture. 
cor  nic'u  late,  with  a  small  horn  or  spur. 
co  rSl'la,  52,  etc. 

cftr'ol  line,  pertaining  to  the  corolla. 
co  rO'na,  crown. 
cOr'ti  cal  bark,  416. 
cor'ymb,  co  rym'bose,  358. 
c5s'tate,  'ribbed,  with  rib- like  ridges. 
cot  y  le'dons,  180,  3£0. 
cras'sfl  la,  a  genus  of  plants,  63. 
era  ter'i  f6rm,  of  the  form  of  a  goblet.     < 
creep 'er.  creeping  stems,  231. 
«rem  0  carp',  151. 

crS'nate,  bordered  with  rounded  teeth. 
crgn'O  late,  809. 

crgst'ed  or  cris'tate,  with  an  elevated  ridge. 
crls'pate  or  crisped,  310. 
crown  of  the  root,  236. 
cru'ci  form  (corolla),  100. 
crude  sap,  368. 

crus  ta'ceous,  hard,  thin,  and  brittle. 
cryp  to  ga'mia,  472. 
cu'cul  late,  rolled  up  into  a  hood  shape. 
culm,  the  straw  of  grasses,  224. 
efl'ne  ate,  ctTne"  i  form,  wedge-shaped,  290. 
cup-shaped,  102. 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


201 


etTpflle,  a  little  cup  (sc.  acorn),  155. 
cus'pi  date,  with  a  sharp,  stiff  point,  307. 
eQ'ti  ele,  outer  lamina  of  wall  of  epidermis, 

399. 

9?  an'ie,  blue,  or  any  color  except  yellow 
9y  ftth'i  f8rm,  cup-shaped. 
9y'cle  (in  Phyllotaxy),  2632  264. 
£y  clO'sis,  same  as  flotation,  currents  in  the 

cell. 

9yme,  cymous,  363. 
pym'bi  form,  boat-shaped. 
9yp'sel  a,  151. 


in  Greek  c&niposition),  ten. 
de  9id'fl  ous,  falling  at  the  end  of  the  season. 
dge'li  nate,  bent  downward. 
dS'eom  pound',  much  compoundedor  divided, 

304. 

de  eum'bent,  212.    (Fig.  249  ) 
de  eur'rent,  274. 
de  eus'sate  (leaves),  opposite,  and  the  pairs  at 


dgf  i  nite,  118. 

de  flex'ed,  bent  downward. 

de  fo  li  5'tion,  the  casting  off  of  leaves. 

de  his '961196,  113,  148. 

dgl  i  qugs'9ent  (axis),  same  as  solvent),  226. 

dSl  toid,  form  of  the  Greek  letter  A,  288. 

dgn'droid,  tree-like  inform. 

dgn'dron  (in  Greek  compounds],  a  tree. 

dgn'tate,  309. 

den  tie 'ft  late,  309. 

de  nu  ded,  become  naked. 

de  pan' per  ate,  less  developed  than  usual. 

de  pend'ent,  hanging  down. 

de  pressed',  flattened  from  above ;  low. 

dgx'trlne,  a  gummy  substance  produced  by 
the  action  of  di  istase  upon  starch. 

dex'trorse  (twining),  turning  to  the  right. 

di  (in  Greek  numerals'),  two. 

dl'a  deTphous,  120. 

di  ag  nO'sis,  a  brief  statement  of  the  distinc- 
tive character  of  a  plant  or  group. 

dl  aph'a  nous,  transparent  or  translucent. 

di  £n'  drous,  with  two  stamens,  118. 

dl'as  t-lse,  a  peculiar  ferment  in  malt,  alter- 
ing starch  into  dextrine. 

di  chfig'a  mous,  445. 

di  ehflt'o  mous,  forked  or  two-forked. 

die  'li  none,  <>7. 

di  pot'y  16  dons,  dicotyledonous,  182,  284. 

dld'y  mous,  double. 

di  dvn'a  mous,  119. 

dif  fuse',  much  divided  and  spreading. 

dig'i  tate,  with  several  distinct  leaflets  pal- 
mately  arranged  (as  in  the  leaf  of  the 
Horse-chestnut). 

di  mld'i  ate  (anther),  halved,  114. 

di  mor'phous  plants,  446. 

di  devious  (flowers),  67. 

dip'ter  ous,  having  two  wings. 

disk,  85,  362. 

dis'^oid,  no  rays.    (Fig.  446.) 

disk-bearing  tissue,  401 . 

dis  sget'ed,  cut  into  deep  lobes. 

dis  sgp'i  ment,  same  as  partition,  132. 

dis'ti-eh  ous,  arranged  in  two  rows. 

dis  tinet,  separate,  not  united,  82. 

di  v3r'i  cate,  wide-spread,  straggling. 

di  ver'gent,  spreading  with  a  less  angle. 

dSr'sal,  on  or  relating  to  the  back. 

dotted  cells,  384. 

dotted  ducts,  406. 

double  terms,  301. 

downy,  clothed  with  short,  weak  hairs. 


drupe,  156. 

dru  pa'ceus.    (See  tryma.) 

drying-press,  6. 

ducts,  402. 

du'pli  eate,  inpairs^  double. 

du  ra'men,  heart-wood,  418. 

dwarfing.    (Fig.  5.50,  d.) 

E,  ex  (in  composition),  without ;  as. 

e  brfic'te  ate,  without  bracts. 

gch'i  nate,  prickly  with  rigid  hairs. 

ef  fete,  sterile,  exhausted. 

el'a  ters,  spiral,  elastic  threads  accompanying 

certain  spores. 

el  Hp'tie,  elliptical  (leaf),  289. 
e  lOn  ga'tgd,  lengthened,  extended. 
e  mar'gi  nate,  307. 
gm'bryo,  31,  180. 
embryo  sac,  142. 
6n'do  carp,  156. 
gn'do  chrome,  the  coloring  matter  of  plants. 

See  chlorophyl. 
en  dOg'e  nous  structure,  421. 
gn'do  ggns,  180,  421,  422,  424. 
en'do  pleu'ra.  same  as  tegmen,  172. 
en  dos'  mOse,    a    thrusting,   which    causes 

liquids  of  different  densities  to  pass  through 

thin  membranes,  and  mingle. 
gn'si  f6nu,  sword-shaped,  297. 
entire,  even-edged,  308. 
e  phgm'e  ral,  enduring  for  one  day. 
gp'I  (in  Greek  composition),  upon :  as. 
gp'i  carp,  156. 

gp'i  derm  is,  outside  layer  of  cells,  391. 
g  pig'y  nous,  upon  the  ovary,  97, 119. 
gp'i  pet'  al  ous,  on  the  petals,  119. 
gp'i  phytes,  plants  on  other  plants,  208. 
gp'i  sperm,  the  skin  of  the  seed. 
gq'ui  tant  (astraddle),  258. 
e  rose',  eroded,  as  if  gnawed,  310. 
e  ta?'ri  5,  158. 

6'ti  o  la  ted,  colorless  for  want  of  light. 
gx'al  bfl'mi  nous,  without  albumen,  178. 
ex  cur'rent,  226. 
ex  Qg'e  nae,  exogens,  182. 
ex  Og'e  nous  structure,  416-418. 
gx'os  mOse,  flowing  out. 
ex  sert'ed,  projecting  out  of,  or  beyond. 
ex  stlp'd  late,  without  stipules,  272. 
ex'tra  (in  composition),  beyond ,'  as. 
extra-axillary,  same  as  supra  axillary, 
ex  trOrse',  turned  outward,  114. 

fSl'eate,  scythe-shaped,  curved. 

ffir'i  na'caous,  flour-like  in  texture. 

f&r'i  nous,  mealy  on  the  surface. 

fgs'9i  -ele,  a  bundle.  365. 

fas  ci«'u  late  (leaves),  262. 

fgath'er-veined,  285. 

fer  ru'gi  nous,  of  the  color  of  iron-rust. 

fer'tile  (flower),  seed-producing,  67. 

fer'ti  li  za'tion,  etc.,  433,  434,  447. 

nb'rillae,^^fe,  199,428. 

flT a  ment,  the  stalk  of  a  stamen,  111,  112. 

fil  I  cl'nse. 

ffl'i  f6rm,  slender  like  a  thread. 

flm'bri  ate,  fringed,  having  the  edge  bordered 

with  slender  processes. 
fls'sioh,  a  splitting  into  parts. 
fist'fl  lar,  hollow,  as  the  leaf  of  onion. 
fla  bgl'li  fOrm,  fan-shaped,  298. 
fla  ggl'li  f6rm,  whip-shaped;  long,  taper,  and 


fla  vgs'9ent,  yellowish,  turning  yellow. 
flgx'fl  ous,  zig-zag  or  wavy. 


202 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY. 


flo«  «0se',  with  hairs  in  soft  fleecy  tufts. 
flO'ra,  (a)  the  spontaneous  vegetation  of  a 
country ;  (6)  a  written  description  of  the 


flO'ral,  relating  to  flowers. 

floral  envelopes,  50,  87. 

flo'rets,  the  flowers  of  a  compound  flower, 

362. 

flow'er.  49,  etc.:  origin  of,  37. 
flower-bud,  244,  335,  etc. 
foil  a'ceous,  leaf-like  in  texture  or  form. 
ffl'li  8'tlon,  the  act  of  leafing. 
foTli  «le,  164. 

fo  ra'men,  same  as  micropyle,  140. 
fo've  o  late,  having  shallow  pits. 
free,  not  adherent  nor  adnate,  81,  94. 
fringed.    (See  fimbriate.) 
frOnd,  an  organ  which  is  both  stem  and  leef, 

as  in  duckmeat,  fern. 
fron  descent,  bursting  into  leaf. 
frfi€'ti  fi  -ea'tion,  flower  and  fruit  as  a  whole. 
fruit,  38,  143. 

fru  tgs'sent,  shrubby,  becoming  shrubby. 
lu  ga'ceous,  soon  falling  off. 
f  ul'era  (roots),  accessary,  206. 
fu  llgl  nous,  smoky  brown,  blackish. 
fuTvotis,  dull  yellowish  brown. 
fu  mVfl  lus  (a  little  rope),  140. 
fun'nel-fOrm.    (See  infundibuliform),  102. 
f  fa' eate,  forked,  fork-veined,  284. 
filr'fu  ra'ceous,  scurfy. 
fur-rowed',  marked  with  channels  lengthwise. 
fus'-eous,  grayish  or  blackish  brown. 
f  u'si  f6rm,  spindle-shaped,  203. 

gS'le  a,  galeate,  103. 

gSm'o  pgt'S  he,  477. 

gam'o  pgt'ai  ous,  with  the  petals  united,  99. 

ga  mftph'yl  lous,  of  united  perianth  leaves. 

gam'o  sgp'al  lous,  with  the  sepals  united. 

ggml  nate,  twin,  two  together. 

gem  mS'tion,  state  of  budding  (Latin,  gemma, 

bud),  382. 

ge  nte'fi  late,  bent  as  the  knee  (genu). 
gS'nfis,  29,  457. 
ggn'e  ra,  plural  of  genus,  457. 
germ,  the  ovary.    ( The  term  is  obsolete.) 
ger  mi  na'tion,  188,  438. 
glb'boas,  more  tumid  in  a  certain  place. 
gla'brous,  smooth,  not  hairy,  312. 
giad'i  ate,  sword-shaped,  ensiform. 
gland,  glandular,  80,  393. 
glans,  155. 
glau'-eous,  with  a  bloom,  or  whitish,  waxy 

powder,  seen  on  the  under  side  of  cabbage 

leaves,  and  on  fresh  plums,  etc. 
glo  bose',  inform  nearly  spherical. 
glOm'er  ate,  collected  into  close  heads. 
glOm'er  ule,  363. 

gloss  oTo  gy,  the  explaining  of  technical  terms. 
glumes,  108,  349. 
glum  if'e  KB,  484. 
grafting.    (Fig.  2oO,  e.) 
grand  divisions,  65. 
gran'S  lar,  composed  of  grains. 
gym'nfts  (a  Grreek  prefix),  naked ,'  as. 
gym'nO  sper'mae,  gymnosperms,  479. 
iym'no  sperm'ous,  with  naked  seeds. 
gy  nSn'drofis,  119. 
gyn'O  base,  a  process  of  the  torus  on  and 

around  which  the  carpels  are  suspended 

(sc.  Geranium,  Fig.  172). 
g^  nee'?!  um,  123. 
gyn'o  phore,  a  produced  torus,  bearing  the 

ovary  on,  its  fummit.    (Fig.  112.) 


gy  rate',  same  as  circinate,  255. 
gy  rose',  strongly  bent  to  and  fro. 


,  the  general  aspect  of  a  plant. 
habitat,  the  natural  locality  or  place    of 

growth  of  a  wild  plant. 
hairs,  392.     Hairy,  hirsute. 
hal  berd  shaped,  hastate.    (Fig.  313.) 
halved,  one-half  apparently  deficient. 
has'tate,  with  the  base-lobes  abruptly  spread- 

ing, asinahalbert,2Ql. 
heart-shaped,  291. 
heart-wood,  419. 
herb,  herbaceous,  40,  41. 
her  ba'ceous,  green  and  cellular  in  texture. 
her  ba'ri  um,  3. 
hes'per  id'I  um,  160. 
her  m&ph'ro  dlte  (flower),  with  both  stamens 

and  pistils. 
hgt'gr  0  cgph'a  lous,  heads  of  two  sorts  in  the 

same  plant,  some  6  and  some  s  . 
h6t  er  5g'a  mous,  two  sorts  of  flowers  in  the 

same  head,  some  6  and  some  ?  . 
hgx'S  (Greek  numeral},  six  ;  as  in, 
hex  fig'o  nal,  6-sided  or  G-angled. 
hex  Sm'er  ous,  Q-parted. 
hex  Sn'drous,  having  6  stamens. 
hl'lum,  the  eye  or  scar  of  the  seed,  177. 
hir  sflte',  hairy,  with  rather  long  hairs,  313. 
hls'pid,  bristly  with  stiff  hairs,  313. 
his  t6To  gy,  description  of  cells  and  tissues, 

368. 

hoar'y,  frost-colored,  grayish-white. 
ho  mog'a  mous,  head  with  all  the  flowers 

alike,  as  to  the  stamens  and  pistils. 
ho'mo  ge'ne  ous,  of  the  same  kind. 
hon'ey,  honey-bee,  458. 
hood.    (See  calyptra,  518.) 
hooded.    (See  cucullate.) 
h8rn'y,  of  the  texture  of  horn. 
hOr'tus  siccus,  the  herbarium,  dry  garden,  3. 
hfl'mi  fuse,  spreading  on  the  ground. 
hy'a  line,  transparent,  or  nearly  so. 
hybrid,  a  cross-breed  between  two  species. 
hy'per  bO'rean,  inhabiting  northern  regions. 
hy'po  (in  Greek  compounds),  under  ;  as, 
hyp'o  «ra  terl  f6rm,  salver-form,  102. 
hyp'o  ge'an,  growing  under  ground. 
by  p5g'y  nous,  95,  119. 

Im'bri  «ate,  imbricated,  257,  339. 

im  mar'gin  ate,  having  no  rim  or  border. 

im  mersed'.    (See  submersed.) 

in  Sx'i  al  root.  201. 

in  clged,  divided  deeply  as  if  cut,  310. 

in  -elfld'ed,  enclosed  within,  or  shorter  than, 

as  the  stamens  in  the  corolla. 
in-erSs'sate,  thickened. 
in  -eiim'bent  (sc.  embryo),  183. 
in'de  his'  sent',  not  opening,  148. 
in  dgf'i  nite,  118. 
in  dlg'e  nous,  native  of  a  country. 
in  dfl'pli  «ate,  337. 
in  dH'gi  um,  the  shield  of  the  fruit-dot  (sorus) 


of  a  fern. 
in  fS'r 


^  iS'ri  or,  lower  in  position. 
in  flg^t'gd,  bent  inward,  inflexed. 
in'flo  rgs'senpe.  841,  etc. 
In 'fun  dlb'fl  li  f6rm,  funnel-shaped,  102. 
in'nate  (sc.  anther),  114. 
in  sgrt'ed,  insertion,  refer  to  the  point  of  junc- 
tion or  appai'ent  origin. 
in  tg«'  Q  ment,  a  coal  or  covering. 
In'ter  node,  220. 
In'ter  pgt'I  o  lar,  between  the  petioles. 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


203 


In'ter  riipt'ed  ly  pinnate,  302.    (Fig.  358.) 
in  trOrse'  (anthers),  turned  inward,  114. 
In'vo  Ifl'-ere,  involucel.  347, 
In'vo  lute,  rotted  inward,  256.    (Fig.  287.) 
Ir  rSg'u  lar  flowers,  83,  101. 

joint'ed,  having  joints,  separable  pieces. 
jfl'gum,  a  pair ;  as,  bijugous,  with  two  pairs 
of  leaflets;  trijugous,  three  pairs. 

keel,  keeled.    (See  carinate.) 
kidney-shaped.    (See  reniform,  295.) 
kingdoms  of  Nature,  12-14. 

la  bSl'lum,  the  odd  petal  of  an  orchid,  101. 

la'bi  ate,  lip-shaped,  103. 

139 'er  ate,  torn  irregularly  by  deep  incisions. 

la  9in'i  ate,  slashed,  with  deep  incisions. 

la«  te"s'9ent,  containing  lac,  or  milk. 

15e  u"  nOse',  having  lacunae  or  holes. 

la  eus'trlne,  growing  in  lakes. 

ISm'i  nil,  the  blade  of  a  leaf,  a  thin  plate,  271. 

la"n'9e  o  late,  lance-shaped.    (Fig.  317.) 

la  nu'gi  nose,  woolly,  312. 

la'tex,  (1)  me  turbid  or  milky  juice  of  plants; 


lac  tif 'er  ous  tissue,  408. 

latin  names  of  plants,  25,  26. 

layer.    (See  stolon,  217.) 

leaf,  271,  etc.;  structure  of,  431,  etc. 

leaf-bud,  244,  etc. 

leaflet,  the  piece  of  a  compound  leaf,  301. 

leaf-stems,  222. 

leg'fime,  165. 

lens,  7. 

len  tl-e'Q  lar,  shaped  like  a  convex  lens. 

H'ber,  the  inner  bark,  412. 

H  chens,  II  kens',  519. 

llg'ne  ous  system,  399. 

lig'fi  late,  strap-shaped,  103. 

lig  files,  the  stipules  of  grasses,  279. 

ml  a'ceous  flower,  100. 

limb,  the  border,  91. 

lin'e  ar,  long  and  narrow,  297. 

lin  noe'tis,  468. 

liv'id,  clouded  with  bluish,  brown,  and  gray. 

10'bate,  lobed,  294. 

IQe'fl  li  9l'dal,  opening  into  the  cell,  148. 

lo  €us'ta,  a  spikelet  of  the  grasses. 

lO'ment,  a  jointed  legume,  165. 

10  rate',  thong-shaped. 

Ifl'nate,  crescent-shape 


ly'«o  pO'di  a'9C  oe,  487. 
ly'rate,  ^innatifld.  with  the  upper  lobes  much 
larger  than  the  lower,  2(J3. 

m5e  ros  (in  Greek  compounds'),  long. 

maVd  late,  spotted  or  blotched. 

male  (flowers),  same  as  staminate. 

mar  96s'9ent,  withering,  but  persistent,  109. 

mar 'gin  al,  belonging  to  the  border. 

mar 'gin  ate,  having  the  border  different. 

me  dul'la,  pith. 

m8d'ul  la  ry  rays,  414. 

mgd'ul  la  ry  sheath,  414. 

mgm'bra  na'ceous,   membranous,   thin   and 

pellucid,  315. 
mer'i  carp,  one  of  the  carpels  of  a  cremocarp 

of  an  umbellifer.    (Fig.  177.) 
mer  ous,  consisting  of  parts. 
mS  tSb'O  Hsm,  429. 
ml'ero  pyle,  177 ;  same  as  foramen, 
ml'ero  seOpe,  8. 

mld'rib,  the  central  vein  of  a  leaf,  282. 
mld'veln  (used  in  this  work),  883, 


mln'er  al,  13. 

mit'ri  f6Tm,formed  like  a  conical  cap. 
monos  (in  Greek  compounds),  one  only  ;  as, 
mon'a  dglph'ous,  120. 
mo  nSn'drous,  1-stamened,  118. 
mo  nil'i  fOrm  (roots),  204. 
mbn'o  car'pic  herbs.  42. 
m5n'o  chla  myd'e  ous  (flowers),  66. 
mOn'o  cot'y  Ig'dOns,  180,  284. 
mo  nee  cious,  67. 

mo  nQg'y  nous,  with  one  style,  124. 
mon'o  pgt'a  Ia3.    (See  gamopetalse,  513.) 
mon'o  pet'a  lous,  80,  91. 
mo  nOph'yl  lous,  \-leaved. 
m5n'o  sgp'al  lous,  TO,  91. 
m5n'strous  flowers,  334. 
mor  ph51  o  gy,  19 ;  of  the  leaf,  271. 
movements  of  fluids,  431. 
mfi'-ero,  a  sharp,  small,  abrupt  point. 
mu'ero  nate.  307. 
mul'ti  (in  composition),  many. 
mill  ti  fid,  cut  half-way  into  many  segments. 
mu'ri  -eate,  bearing  short,  hard  points. 
mu'ri  f6rm,  like  a  wall  of  mason-work. 
mus  eol'o  gy,  a  treatise  on  mosses. 
mfi'ti  cose,  pointless,  not  pointed. 
my  9e'li  urn,  the  thallus  of  the  fungi,  usually 
concealed,  519. 

na'ked  seeds.  147.    (Fig.  166.) 

na'pi  f6nn  (root).  £03. 

na'tant,  swimming /  underwater. 

nat'u  ral  Ized,  growing  spontaneously,  but  not 
native. 

nSt  u  ral  orders,  458,  463,  465,  497. 

natural  system,  504,  506,  etc. 

nge'tar,  honey. 

nectary,  77. 

ne  pgri'thgs,  322.    (Fig.  891.) 

nerves,  the  veins  (282)  are  sometimes  so  called. 

ngt'ted  or  net-veined.    (See  reticulate,  284.) 

nea  tral  flower,  68. 

nod 'ding,  nutant,  the  summit  bent  over,  as  in 
snmudrop. 

node,  a  joint  of  the  stem,  220. 

no  dose',  knotted,  large-jointed. 

n5d'fi  lose  (root),  204. 

no'men  clat'ure,  25,  498.  etc. 

nor'mal,  according  to  rule,  regular. 

nu'9i  f6rm,  nut-like-. 

nu  9el'lus,  kernel  (sc.  of  ovule),  140,  172,  cen- 
tral body  in  cell. 

nu-elS'o  lus,  dense  body  within  a  nucleus. 

nfl'-ele  us,  dense  spherical  mass  of  protoplasm 
in  a  cell. 

nut.    (See  glans,  155.) 

ob  (in  composition)  denotes  inversion  ;  as, 

Qb'^om  pressed',  flattened  back  and  front. 

ob  «0r'date,  307. 

ob  lftn'9e  o  late,  2fiO. 

ob  Hque',  unequal- sided,  as  the  leaves  of  elm. 

Ob'long,  289. 

ob  O'vate,  290. 

ob  tfise',  307. 

Ob'vo  lute  (in  (estivation),  258. 

Och'rea,  sheathing  stipules,  279. 

Ofh'ro  lea'«ose,  cream  color,  pale  yellow. 

octo  (in  Greek  composition),  eight. 

oc  tSn'drose,  having  8  stamens. 

o«  tog'y'  nOee,  having  8  styles. 

off  s5t,  a  short  lateral  shoot,  218. 

oligos  (in  Greek  composition),  few  ;  as, 

51T  gSn  dria,  with  few  stamens. 

81'i  va'ceous,  olive-green,  brownish-green. 


204 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


o  paque',  dull,  not  shining. 

o  per'eu  lar,  with  a  lid,  114. 

Bp'po  site,  two  at  a  node,  215,  262. 

or  we'll  lar,  orbiculate,  circular,  289. 

Or'ehi  dS'ceofis,  101. 

or  ggn'ic  world,  12. 

Or'gan  Sg'ra  phy,  19.    See  structural  botany. 

or  thOt'ro  pous  (ovule),  erect,  141. 

6s'se  ous,  bony,  as  the  peach-stone. 

O'val,  289. 

ovate,  288. 

O'va  ry,  125. 

O'void,  egg-shaped,  as  in  fruits. 

O'vule,  the  young  seed,  138. 

pS'lgae  or  pales,  108,349. 

pa'le  a'ceons,  chaffy,  having  pales. 

palm,  422. 

paTmi-veined,  285. 

paTmate,  295. 

pan  dfl'ri  fOrm,  fiddle-shaped. 

pan!  ele,  360. 

pa  nie'u  late,  panicled. 

pa  pll'io  na'ceous,  101. 

pSp'pus,  the  calyx  of  composites,  104. 

pSr'al  lei-veined,  2st 

p5r 'a  sites,  209. 

pa  ren'-ehy  ma,  396. 

pa  rl'e  tal,  on  the  wall  (paries),  133. 

part'ed,  deeply  divided  into  parts. 

pat'ent,  wide  open. 

pat'fi  lous,  half  open. 

pear-shaped,  obovoid,  larger  above. 

pgc'ti  nate,  combed,  finely  pinnatifld. 

pgd'ate,  shaped  like  a  bird's  foot,  296. 

pgd'i  eel,  peduncle,  343. 

pgl'tate,  shield-form,  295. 

pend'ent,  pendulous,  hanging,  drooping. 

pgn'i  9!! 'late,  with  a  tuft  of  hairs,  as  if  a 


pen  tam'er  ous,  5-parted. 

pen  tan'droiis,  with  5  stamens,  118. 

pen'tg  (in  Greek  composition),  Jive. 

pS'po,  a  fruit  like  a  melon,  161. 

per  gn'm  al,  living  several  years,  43. 

perfect  flower,  (s)  with  both  stamen  and 

pistil. 

per  fq'li  ate,  through  the  leaf,  811. 
peri  (in  Greek  composition),  around :  as, 
pgr'i  anth,  53,  87  ;  forms  of,  99. 
pgr'i  «arp,  146  ;  forms  of,  ICO. 
per'i  gy"n  i  urn,  107. 
pe  rfg'y  nous,  96,  119. 
pgr'i  sperm,  same  as  albumen,  179. 
per  slst'ent,  remaining  long  in  place,  109. 
pgr'son  ate,  103 
pgt'al  or  p6'tal,//w?i  weTa\oi>,  one  of  thefoli- 

aceous  expansions  of  the  corolla,  52 ;  forms 

of,  89. 

pgt'al  oid,  resembling  petals. 
pgt'al  oi'de  ae,  483. 
pgt'I  Ole,  274. 
pgt'i  o  late,  271. 
pgt'i  o  Iflle,  276. 
phan'e  ro  ga'mia,  467,  471,  472. 
phyl  lo'di  Im  (plural  phyllodia),  r:i. 
phyl  lo  tax'y,  leaf -arrangement,  CC1. 
phys'i€8.  16. 
phyg  i  81'o  gy,  21,  368. 
phy  toTo  gy  (Greek,  phytos,  a  plant),  23. 
pi  lose',  with  erect,  thin  hairs,  1 13. 
pln'nate,  302. 
pin  nat'i  fid,  293. 
pin  nat'i  sgct.    See  pinnatifid. 
pls'tU,  56, 123. 


pitch'ers  (leaves). 
pith,  414. 


(See  ascidia,  322.) 


pit 'ted,  with  depressions  or  excavations. 

pla  9en'ta,  127  ;  free  axile,  135. 

plan  of  the  flower,  58. 

plant  defined,  14. 

plant  growth,  409. 

pli'eate,  plaited  lengthwise  as  a  fan,  254,  340. 

plu  mose' ,  feathery. 

pla'miile,  a  little  plume,  31, 180. 

p5Hen,  111,  121. 

pollen-tube,  450. 

pol  II  na'tion,  443. 

p51  lin'I  a,  masses  of  pollen,  434. 

pOl'i  (in  Greek  compounds'),  many;  as, 

pol'y  a  dgl'phous,  120. 

pQTy  Sn'drous,  having  many  stamens. 

po  lyg'a  moiis,  with  some  imperfect  flowery. 

pol'y  pgt'al  se.  476. 

poTy  pgt'al  ous,  pOl  y  sgp'al  ous,  90. 

pome,  a  fruit  like  an  apple,  162. 

p6s  tS'ri  or,  next  the  axis. 

potted  plants,  428. 

po  ta'to,  manner  of  its  growth,  238. 


prS'fo  li  a'tion,  vernation,  252. 

pre  morse',  ending  abruptly,  235. 

press  for  drying  plants,  6. 

prlck'les,  392. 

prl'mine,  same  as  testa,  173. 

prig  mat'ic,  prism-shaped,  having  several  par- 
allel, longitudinal  angles. 

pro  cum'bent  (stem),  212.    (Fig.  248.) 

pro  duced',  extended  more  than  usual. 

proliferous,  reproducing;  as  cymes  from 
the  midst  of  a  cyme,  flowers  from  the  midst 
of  a  flower. 

pros'gn'-eh?  mi,  398. 

pro  tOph'y  ta,  494. 

prO'to  plasm,  368,  369. 

pru'i  nose,  powdered,  as  if  frosted,  314. 

pru'ri  ens,  causing  an  itching  sensation. 

psefl'do  (in  Greek  composition),  spurious, 
false. 

pu  bgs'cent,  downy,  with  short,  soft  hairs. 

pu  bgr'u  lent,  minutely  downy. 

pu'ml  lose  (pumilus),  dwarfed  in  size. 

pune'tate,  seeming  as  if  perforate,  or  marked 
with  minute  dots. 

pun'gent,  piercing,  sharp-pointed. 

pfl  ta  men,  the  bony  nucleus  of  a  drupe. 

py  ram'i  dal,  form  of  a  cone  or  pyramid. 

pyr'i  form,  of  the  form  of  a  pear. 

pyx'is,  a  pericarp  with  a  lid,  163. 

quad'ri  (in  composition),  four  ;  as, 

quad  ran'gu  lar,  four-angled. 

quad'ri  fO'li  ate,  four-leaved. 

quSd'rl  jfl'gate,  with  four  pairs  of leaflets. 

quad'ri  lat'er  al,  four-sided. 

quin'que  (in  composition),  five. 

qul'nate,  growing  in  fives,  306. 

qnln  «un'cial,  339.    (Fig.  300.) 

quln'tu  pie,  five-fold. 

race  (Latin,  stirps),  a  permanent  variety,  as 

red-cabbage,  456. 
ra  cSme',  358, 

ra'ehis,  axis  of  the  inflorescence,  301,  343. 
ra'di  ate,  diverging  from  a  common  center. 
radiate  (in  the  composites),  the  outer  row  of 

florets  ligulate.    (Fig.  388.) 
ra'di  ant,  outer  flowers  enlarged  (and  often 
neutral,  Fig.  271). 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSAKY. 


205 


rSd'I  e&\,from  the  root,  262. 

radical  (of  the  flower),  65. 

rSd'i  «le,  rootlet  (of  the  embryo),  31, 180. 

ra'mal  (of  a  branch),  262. 

ra'phe  (of  the  ovule  or  seed),  141. 

rSph'i  dSs,  375. 

rays,  359,  362. 

re  cep'ta  «le,  57.    (See  torus.) 

re  -curved',  bent  (not  rolled)  backward. 

re  flexed',  curved  backward  excessively. 

re  frgct'ed,  bent  back  suddenly,  as  if  broken. 

r8g'ma,/r«W  as  of  geranium,  168. 

rSg'u  lar,  like  parts  similar,  corresponding. 

r8n'i  f6rm,  kidney -shaped,  295. 

re  p&nd'  (margin),  310. 

rS'pgnt,  creeping  (sc.  stems,  232). 

rgs'pi  ra'tion,  427. 

re  sfl'pi  nate,  reversed,  upside  down. 

re  tic' Q  late,  netted,  388. 

re  trdrse,  backward,  downward. 

re  tflse'  (apex),  307.    (Fig.  367,  c.) 

rgv'o  Iflte,  rolled  backward,  256. 

rha'chis,  same  as  rachfs. 

rhl  zo'ma,  rhizome,  230,  233. 

rhom'bie,   rhomboidal,   in  the  figure  of  a 

rhomb,  or  approaching  it. 
ribs,  the  chief  veins  of  a  leaf,  ridges. 
rln'gent  (corolla),  103. 
rings  of  wood,  414. 
root,  197. 
root-cap,  419. 
root-stock,  233. 
ro  sa'ceous  (corolla),  100. 
r8s'trate,  beaked,  with  a  beak. 
ro  §u  late  (leaves),  arranged  around  the  base 

of  the  stem,  as  the  petals  of  a  rose,  262. 
rO'tate,  wheel-shaped,  10 1. 
ro  ta'tion,  circulation  of  fluids  in  the  cell. 
ru'bi  -eund,  blushing,  rosy  red. 
ru'di  ment,  a  minute  part. 
ru.  gOse,  wrinkled,  315. 
ru  'ml  na'ted  (albumen),  full  of  chinks,  as  if 

composed  of  numerous  folds. 
run  91'nate,  hooked  backward,  293. 
riin'ner,  219. 

sS-e  «h3  rom'y  968,  410. 
s&g'it  tate,  arrow-shaped,  291. 
saTver-shaped.    (See  hypocrateriform,  102.) 
sa  ma'ra,  154. 

sap,  the  watery  fluid  taken  up  by  the  root  and 
moved  through  the  vessels  up  to  the  leaves,  431. 
sap-wood. 

sar'-eo  c  irp  (of  the  drape),  156. 
sea'brous.  rough,  312. 
s«a  ISrl  f&Tm  (cells),  ladder-shaped,  378. 
scales,  319. 
scale-stems,  79,  230. 
seSn'dent,  climbing. 
scape,  344. 
scarious,  315. 

s«fit'tered,  sometimes  used  for  alternate, 
scl'on  or  cl'on,  218. 
8€l<5r  en'  ^h^'mS,  390. 
8€l6'rose,  hard,  bony. 
ee&r'pi  oid  (inflorescence),  365. 
&ero  bte'fl  late,  pitted,  with  little  depressions. 
sea-green,  light  bluish  green,  glaucescent. 
sS'-eund,  all  on  one  side,  or  turned  one  way. 
sSe'un  dine,  same  as  tegmen,  172. 
seed,  172 ;  vitality  of,  185 ;  dispersion  of,  186. 
seed-coverings,  173. 
sSm'I  (in  composition),  half,'  as, 
s6m'I  cOr'date,  half  of  cordate. 
egm'I  la'nar,  half-moon  shaped. 


sSm'I  eag'it  tate,  partly  sagittate. 

sS'pal  or  sgp'al,  one  of  the  foliaceous  parts  of 

the  calyx,  51. 
sgp'a  loi'd,  sepal-like. 
sgp'ti  ^Id'al  (dehiscence),  148. 
sep  tlf  'ra  gal  (dehiscence),  148. 
sSp'tum,  a  partition  between  two  spaces. 
ee  rl'ceous,  silky,  312. 
se  rOt'i  nous,  occurring  late  in  the  season. 
sgr'rate,  serrulate,  309. 
sgs'slle,  sitting,  not  stalked,  125,  271. 
85'tse,  106. 

sS  ta'ceous,  bristle-form. 
sS'tous,  setigu-pus,  bearing  bristles,  313. 
sheath,  sheathing,  as  the  leaves  of  the  grasses, 

275. 

shrub,  45. 

sll'ique,  silicic,  166. 

sp'i  quos,  bearing  siliques  (as  the  crucifers). 
silver-grain  (of  wood),  414. 
simple,  of  one  piece,  not  compound. 
sln'is  trOrse',  twining  from  right  to  left. 
sin'n  ate,  294. 
slips,  218. 

soTi  t&  ry,  growing  alone,  or  singly. 
sQlv'ent  axis,  47. 
sO'rT,  patches  of  fruit  in  ferns. 
so  ro'sis,  171. 
spa'dix,  356. 

spSthe,  spathaceous,  346. 
late  (leaf),  290. 


g,  27,  455. 
epe  cif  'ic  name,  26. 
spep'i  mens  (of  plants),  2,  5. 
spike,  spicate,  355. 
spike  'let,  a  little  spike,  as  in  a  grass. 
spine,  a  woody  thorn,  327. 
spin'dle-shaped  (root),  203.    (Pig.  238.) 
spiral  arrangement  (of  leaves),  263. 
spiral  cells  or  vessels,  386. 
sponge'let,  spongiole,  199. 
spores,  184. 

spur,  a  projecting,  slender  appendage,  78. 
equar  rose',  spreading  widely,  as  the  involu- 

cral  scales  of  some  composites. 
stages  of  plant  life,  31. 
sta'mens,  55,  110. 
stam'I  nate  flower,  67. 
stam'I  no  di  a,  117. 
starch,  374. 

stem,  or  ascending  axis,  211. 
stSr'Ile,  not  bearing  seeds,  67. 
stlg'ma,  stigmatic,  125,  129. 
stings,  393. 
stipe,  the  stalk  of  the  ovary  orwaries;  also, 

the  stem  of  a  mushroom. 
stl'pels,  stipellate,  279. 
etlp'i  tate,  on  a  stipe. 
stip'flles,  stipulate,  272,  277. 
BtO'lon,  217. 

stoTo  nlf  'er  ous,  producing  stolons. 
stO'ma,  394,  etc. 

strap-shaped,  flat,  narrow,  and  straight. 
strict,  erect  and  very  straight. 
stri  gOse',  icith  sharp,  close,  rigid  hairs. 
strob'ile  (fruit),  169. 
strO'phi  o  late,  having  an  appendage  (stro- 

phiole  or  caruncle)  about  the  hilum. 
struc'tur  SI  botany  or  organography,  treats  of 

the  organs  or  parts  of  plants,  of  their  forms 

and  uses. 
style,  125. 
styloid,  style-like. 
sub  (in  composition),  slightly,  317. 
sfib'e  rose,  corky  in  texture. 


206 


INDEX    AND     GLOSSARY. 


sub-kingdoms,  473. 

sfl'bfl  late,  awl-shaped,  299. 

sfre'-eu  lent,  wry  juicy  and  cellular,  315. 

sflck'er,  216. 

suf  fru  tes'cent,  woody  at  the  base  only. 

aureate,  furrowed. 

su  pS'ri  or,  97,  98. 

superior  calyx,  calyx  adherent  to  ovary. 

superior  ovary,  ovary  free  from  calyx. 

sfl'per  vo  lute',  340. 

sfl'pra,  above. 

sfl'pra-ax'il  la  ry,  situated  above  the  axil. 

su'pra  de-e6m  pound,  very  much  divided. 

BUS  pgnd  ed  (ovule),  139.    (Fig.  158.) 

sfit'flr  al  (dehiscence),  148, 

sword-shaped,  as  the  vertical  leaves  of  iris. 

s$vQ'nviS,  fruit,  such  as  the  Fig.,  170. 

symmetry  (of  the  flower),  60,  c,  69. 

sym  p8t'ai  ous,  with  petals  united. 

sy^n  phyl'lous,  with  perianth  leaves  united. 

syn  (in  Greek  compounds),  together,  union. 

syn  Sn'ther  ous,  with  anthers  united. 

syn  -ear'pi  urn,  169. 

eyn  -ear'pous,  with  carpels  united. 

ey'n'ge  nS'gi  ous,  120. 

t'ic  botany,  451,  etc. 


taper-pointed.    (See  acuminate,  307.) 

tap-root,  203. 

t%w'ny,fulvous,  dull  yellowish-brown. 

tax  On'o  my,  the  science  of  classification. 

tgg'men,  the  inner  seed-coat,  140,  172. 

ten'dril,  228,  324. 

tSr'atolo  gy,  334. 

te  rete',  cylindrical,  or  nearly  so. 

term  of  plant  life,  39,  etc. 

ter'mi  nal,  situated  at  the  end  or  apex. 

ter'mi  noTo  gy.    See  nomenclature,  498. 

ter'nate  (leaves),  in  threes,  303. 

t8s'sel  la'ted,  checkered,  as  a  pavement. 

t8s'ta,  the  outer  seed-coat,  140,  172,  173. 

tSt'ra  (in  Greek  composition),  four. 

tet'ra  dyn'a  mous,  119. 

te  trfig'o  nal,  with  four  corners. 

te  trSg'y  nous,  with  four  pistils. 

thS'ca,  thecse,  sporangia  or  spore-cases. 

thorn,  327. 

throat,  orifice  of  a  monopetalous  corolla. 

thyrse  (thirs),  360. 

tis'sues,  409. 

tO'men  tose',  with  short,  dense,  woolly  hairs, 

top-shaped,  inversely  conical. 

tO'rus,  same  as  receptacle,  57,  84. 

tor'fi  lose,  swollen  at  intervals. 

tree,  46. 

tri  (in  Greek  compounds},  three  ;  as, 

trl'a  dglph'ous,  the  stamens  in  three  sets. 

tri  fln'drous,  having  three  stamens. 

tri  «6V€ous  (fruit),  with  three  1-seeded  car- 


I'-eol  ored  (tricolor),  with  three  colors. 
tri  gn'ni  al,  lasting  three  years. 
tri  fid,  split  half-way  into  three  parts. 
tri  fo-li  ate,  with  three  leaflets,  303. 
trig'y  nous,  having  three  styles,  124. 
tri  lo 'bate,  having  three  lobes,  296. 
tri  mS'rous,  3-parted,  65. 
tri  part'a  loletsepa?  able  into  three  parts. 
tri  partite,  more  deeply  split  than  trifld. 
trlp'le-veined,  285.    (Fig.  319.) 
tri  pln'nate,  thrice  pinnate,  304. 
tri  quS'trous,  three  angled,  258,  339. 
tri  ter'nate,  thrice  ternate,  305. 
tr&ue'ate,  307.    (Fig.  367,  d.) 


trunk  (of  a  tree),  225. 

try'mS,  fruit,  as  the  hickory-nut,  157. 

tube,  91. 

tfi  ber,  237. 

tu  ber'-eu  lar,  ^04. 

tu  ber'eu  late,  covered  with  warts  (tubercles). 

tu'bu  lar  corolla,  102. 

tu'mid,  swollen  or  inflated. 

tu'ni  €ate,  coated,  as  the  bulb,  242. 

tflr'bi  nate,  shaped  like  a  top. 

tu'ri  on,  young  shoot,  as  of  asparagus. 

typ  ie  al  flower,  60.    (Figs.  8-11.) 

um'bel,  a59. 

um  bel  late,  bearing  umbels. 

um'bel  let,  a  partial  umbel. 

um  bll'i  «ate,  with  a  sharp  depression  at  end. 

un  armed',  with  no  stings,  thorns,  etc. 

un'cl  nate,  hooked. 

un'der  shrflb,  a  low  shrub,  45. 

un'du  late,  wavy,  310. 

un  e'qual  ly  pinnate,  302. 

un  guic'u  late  (petal),  having  a  claw,  88. 

uni  (in  compounds),  one  ;  as, 

u  ni  cel'lu  Jar  plants. 

ti  ni  fo'li  ate,  with  one  leaf  or  leaflet. 

u'ni  f6rm,  of  one  form. 

u  ni  lat  er  al,  1-sided. 

u  ni  lOe'fi  lar,  \-cetted. 

u'ni  vfilved,  with  but  one  valve. 

ur'ce  o  late,  urn-shaped,  102. 

a  'tri  ele  (fruit),  152. 


'i  nate,  sheathing  ;    the  .flattened  petiole 
involving  the  stem. 
vSlv'ate,  257,  337. 
valves,  valvular,  114,  148. 
va  rl'e  ties,  28. 
vfts'-eu  lar  tissue,  396. 
vaulted,  arched. 
vgg'e  ta  tion,  or  physiology  of  plant  life,  368. 

vein  'lets,  vein'u  lets,  283. 

ve  na'tion  (of  the  leaf),  282. 

vfin'tri  cose,  swelling  out  on  one  side. 

vgn'tral,  belonging  to  the  front  side. 

ver'nal,  appearing  in  the  Spring-time. 

ver  na'tion  (of  the  leaf  bud),  252. 

v6r'ru  cose,  covered  with  warts  (verruca). 

ver'sa  tile  (anther),  114. 

ver'tex,  the  summit,  same  as  apex. 

ver  'tie  al,  in  the  direction  up  and  down,  or 

parallel  with  the  axis. 
ver  tlc'il  late,  whorled,  215,  262. 
ver  ti  ?il  Ifts'ter,  366. 
ves'per  tine,  appearing  in  the  evening. 
ves'sels,  402. 

vSx'il  la  ry  (aestivation).    (Fig.  425.) 
vex  II  lum,  banner,  101     (Figs.  59,  60.) 
vil  lose',  with  long,  weak  hairs,  312. 
vl  mm'e  ous,  with  long,  flexible  shoots,  osier- 

like. 

rir'gate,  twiggy,  long,  slender. 
rine,  228. 

nfe'cid,  viscous,  sticky  or  glutinous. 
rl  taTity  of  seeds,  185. 
rft'ta,  vittoe,  the  minute  oil-tubes  in  the  fruit- 

coat  of  the  umbettiferce. 
^Qlva,  membrane  inclosing  the  young  fungus. 
wedge-shaped,  tapering  to  the  base. 
whorl,  a  circle  of  similar  organs. 
vitch-grass,  231. 
wood,  372,  415. 
wood  -cells,  399. 
woody  plants,  44. 


x5n  thte,  yellowish. 

x6n  og  a  my,  the  fertilization  of  a  flower,  by 

pollen  from  a  flower  of  another  plant,  of  the 

same  species ;  cross-fertilizition. 
xer'O  phlles,  plants  that  require  great  heat 

and  little    moisture,    or  plants   especially 

adapted  to  arid  regions.    £epo?:  dry,  </>iAeu>, 

I  love  /  hence,  plants  that  delight  in  dry 

places. 

xy'iem,  wood.    From  £v\ov. 
xy'lo  e&rp,  £vAop,  wood,  /capjros,  fruit;  hence, 

hard  and  woody  fruit. 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 

yeast  plant,  411.    (Fig.  513.) 


207 


zo  61 'o  gy,  17. 

zo  Of  II  us,  from  the  Greek  £wov,  animal,  and 
</>VTOI,  plant;  pertaining  to  plants  whose 
pollination  is  accomplished  by  the  agency  of 
insects  or  other  animals. 

zO'O  phyte,  493. 


zyg'O  spore,  spore  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
cells,  tvnov,  a  yoke,  <rnopa,  a  seed;  hence,  a 
yoked  or  united  seed. 


ABBREVIATIONS    AND    SIGNS 


§  BOTANICAL  TERMS   OFTEN   RECURRING  IN  DESCRIPTIONS 


wh.  achenia. 
ast.  aestivation. 
alter,  alternate. 
amplex.  amplexicaul. 
with,  anther. 
axil/,  axillary. 
col.  calyx. 
caps,  capsule. 
cor.  corolla. 
eyp.  cypsela. 
decid.  deciduous. 
diam.  diameter. 
ellip.  elliptical. 
emarg.  emarginate. 
epiy.  epigynous. 
/.  or  ft.  feet. 
/U.  filaments. 
A.  flower ;  Jls.  flowers. 


fr.  fruit. 

gl.  glume  ;  gl*.  plumes. 
hd.  head  ;  hds.  Leads. 
hyp.  hypogynons. 
irribr.  imbricate. 
inf.  inferior. 
invol.  involucre. 
irreg.  irregular. 
leg.  legume. 
If.  leaf;  Ivs.  leaves. 
Ifts.  leaflets. 
lorn,  loment. 
opp.  opposite. 
ova.  ovary. 
pap.  pappus. 
ped.  peduncle. 
pet.  petals. 
perig.  perigynous. 


perig.  perigyninm, 

pis.  pales.   • 

pn.  pinnae. 

pnl.  pinnulae. 

recep.  receptacle 

reg.  regular. 

rhiz.  rhizoma. 

rt.  root. 

sc.  scale,  scales. 

sds.  seeds. 

seg.  segment. 

sep.  sepals. 

st.  stem. 

sta.  or  stam.  stamens 

stig.  stigmas. 

stip.  stipules. 

sty.  styles. 

var.  variety. 


§  TIMES  OP  FLOWERING,   AND  LOCALITIES. 

1.  Names  of  the  Months  and  Seasons  are  abbreviated  in  the  usual  manner,  an,  Jan. 
January ;  Apr.  April ;  Spr.  Spring ;  Aut.  Autumn ;  Sum.  Summer ;  &c. 

2.  The  names  of  States  and  Territories  of  the  D.  S.  are  abbreviated  precisely  as  in 
other  works,  thus :— Ala.  Alabama ;  Ark.  Arkansas  ;  Conn.  Connecticut,  &c. 

3.  Sections  of  States  are  thus  designated:—  N.  N.  Y.  Northern  New  York;    W.  Pa. 
Western  Pennsylvania  ;  E.  Fla.  East  Florida  ;  S.  111.  Southern  Illinois,  &c. 

4.  Names  of  foreign  Countries  :—Eur.  Europe ;  Afr.  Africa ;  8.  Afr.  Soutk  AJr°.c» . 
Aust.  Australia  ;  Can.  Canada ;  Mex.  Mexico ;  8.  Am.  South  America  &c. 

5.  E.  East,  Eastward,  indicates  the  States  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  from  Maine  to  V'J 
Rinia  inclusive  ;  N-E.  or  N.  Eng.  denotes  the  New  England  States. 

6.  M.  is  used  to  denote  the  Middle  States ;  viz.,  N.  Y.,  Penn.,  N.  J..  and  Del. 

I.  N.  North,  Northward,  indicates  generally  the  territory  north  of  42°  N.  latitude. 

8.  N-W.  Northwest,  indicates  Wis.,  Minn.,  and  parts  of  111.  and  Mich. 

9.  ft.  South,  Southward,  is  used  to  indicate  the  Southern  States  in  general,— all  lying 
south  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky, 

10.  &-W.  Southwest,  viz.,  Mise.,  La.,  Ark.,  and  perhaps  Tennessee  and  Texas 

II.  W.  Went,  denotes  the  States  lying  due  north  of  Tennessee  and  Arkansas. 


ABBREVIATIONS   AND   SIGNS. 


209 


§  SIGNS. 


At  annual  Herb. 

A  biennial  Herb. 

A  perennial  Herb. 

An  undershrub,  deciduous. 

An  undershrub,  evergreen. 

A  Shrub,  deciduous. 

A  Shrub,  evergreen. 

A  Tree,  deciduous. 

A  Tree,  evergreen. 

An  herbaceous  Vine,  (T)  or  (a). 

A  perennial  Vine,  u. 

Woody  Vine,  deciduous. 


£  Woody  Vine,  evergreen, 
L,  Trailing  Herb,  ®  or  (|J. 
Lo  Trailing  Herb,  if. 
£?  An  aquatic  Plant. 
I    Flowers  perfect. 
$   Flowers  staminate. 
?   Flowers  pistillate. 
8   Monoecious. 
$  ?  Dioecious. 
$  ¥  ?   Polygamous. 
0  Wanting,  or  none. 
00  Numerous,  or  indefinite 


at  the  end  of  the  description. 


§  A  Plant  introduced  and  naturalized  ; 

t  Plant  cultivated  for  ornament ; 

J  Plant  cultivated  for  use ; 

c  =•  Cotyledons  accumbent ;  \ 

«B  Cotyledons  incumbent ;      V  used  only  in  the  Cruciferse.    (Page  34.) 

o))  Cotyledons  conduplicate ;  J 

!  (Note  of  exclamation),  used  technically,  denotes  certainty. 

T  (Note  of  interrogation),  implies  doubt  or  uncertainty. 

f  (with  or  without  a  period),  a  foot \ 

'  (a  single  acute  accent),  an  inch >  after  a  number. 

"  (a  double  accent),  a  line  =1-12  of  an  inch. . ) 


5  AUTHORS'  NAMES  CITED  IN  THIS  WORK. 


Adans. 
1.  DC. 


Anders. 

Am. 

Avb. 

Bart. 

Bartt. 


Benth. 

Bemh. 

EtrL 

BOM. 

Bong. 

B&rk. 

Br. 

Bw. 

Case. 

Cerv. 

Cham 

Darl. 

DC 

Dttf. 


Adanson. 

Dill. 

Dillenioa 

Alphonsc  Do  Candolle. 

Den. 

DesvaoA 

Aiton. 

Dougl. 

Douglas. 

Allione. 

Ehrh. 

Ehrhart. 

Anders  son. 

Eft. 

EUiott. 

Arnott. 

EncU. 

Endlicher. 

Aublet. 

Engel. 

Engehnann. 

Barton. 

Fiech. 

Fischer. 

Bartling. 

F.  AM. 

Fischer  &  Meyer 

Beauvois. 

Frcel. 

Froelich. 

Bentham. 

Gccrt. 

Gaertner. 

Bernhardt. 

Omel. 

Gmelin. 

Berlandier. 

Good. 

Goodenough. 

Boissier. 

Or. 

A.  Gray. 

Bongard. 

Qrc\ 

Greville. 

Borkhauseu. 

Griseb. 

Grisebach. 

Brown. 

Gron. 

Gronovius. 

Bigelow. 

Hedw. 

Hedwig. 

Cassini. 

Hoffm. 

Hoffman. 

Cavanilles. 

Hook. 

Hooker  (W.  J.) 

Chamissc 

Hook.f.  (JUius) 

Hooker  (J.  D.) 

Darlington. 

Hornem. 

Hornemann. 

DE  CANDOLLE. 

Hude. 

Hudson.            [Kiinuv 

DesfontaineA. 

H.B.  ¥ 

Homboldt,  Bonptand  & 

Dewey 

Jaeq 

Jaoqnin. 

210 


ABBREVIATIONS  AND   SIGNS. 


AUTHORS'   NAMES— (CONTINUED). 


Ap, 

JU8BIEU. 

Richn. 

A.  Jw» 

Adrien  Jussieu. 

Rotm. 

L.  or  Linn. 

LlXN^EUB. 

Salisb. 

Lag. 

Lagasca. 

Schk. 

Lam. 

Lamarck. 

Schrad. 

Lamb. 

Lambert. 

Schreb. 

Ledeb. 

Ledebour. 

Schult. 

Lehm. 

Lehmann. 

Schw. 

Lesq. 

Leeqaereax. 

Scop. 

Lettto. 

Lestibudoie. 

Ser. 

VHer. 

L'Heritier. 

Soland. 

LincU. 

Lindley. 

Sprcng. 

Mart. 

Martins. 

Steud. 

Mich. 

Micheli. 

Sulliv. 

Michx.  or  MX. 

Micbaux. 

Thurib. 

Mx.f. 

Michaux  (the  younger). 

Torr. 

Mm. 

MUler. 

T.&G. 

Mitch. 

Mitchell. 

Tourn. 

MvM. 

Muhlenberg. 

Trautv. 

Nee*. 

Nees  von  3eenbeck. 

Trin. 

Nutt.  or  N. 

Nuttall. 

Tuckm. 

Pal. 

Pallas. 

VaiU. 

Pav. 

Pavon. 

Vent. 

Pert. 

Pereoon. 

via. 

Ph. 

Pursh. 

Wahl. 

Plvk. 

Plukenet. 

Walp. 

Plum. 

Plumier. 

Walt. 

Pair. 

Poiret. 

Wangh. 

R.Br. 

ROBERT  BROWN. 

Wittd. 

Eaf. 

Raflneeque. 

With. 

Bdchml 

ReiehonhMh. 

Wvtf 

Blah. 

Bichord. 

Richardson. 

Roemer. 

Salisbury. 

Schkuhr. 

Schrader. 

Schreber. 

Schultes. 

Schweinitz. 

Scopoli. 

Seringe. 

Solander. 

Sprengel. 

Steudel. 

Snllivant. 

Thnnberg. 

Torrey. 

Torrey  &  Qmy 

Tournefort. 

Trantvetter. 

Triniua. 

Tuckerman. 

Vaillant. 

Ventenat. 

Villare. 

Wahlenberg. 

Walpera. 

Walter. 

Wangenhoim 

WiUdenow. 

Withering. 

Wnliten. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS. 

Founded  on  the  most  obvious  or  artificial  characters  :  designed  as  a  key  for 

the  determination  of  the  Order  of  any  plant,  native,  or  naturalized, 

or  cultivated,  growing  within  the  limits  of  this  Flora. 


KINGDOM. 

Sub-kingdom  I.    Flowering  Plants PHANEBOGAMIA. 

Class  1.  Leaves  net-veined.  Flowers  never  completely  3-parted 
(mostly  ~ty  and  ^).  Embryo  with  2  cotyledons.  Wood  (if 
any)  in  annual  circles.  Seed  in  a  vessel.  Stigmas  pres- 
ent  ANGIOSPERMS,  DICOTYLEDONES. 

Cohort  1.  (A)  Calyx  and  corolla  present,  petals  separate Polypetalw. 

Cohort  2.  (B)  Calyx  and  corolla  present,  petals  more  or  less  united. .Gamopetalae. 

Cohort  3.  (C)  Calyx  present,  but  no  corolla,  or  both  wanting Apetalae. 

Class  2.  Stigma  wanting.  Seed  naked.  Embryo  with  two  or  more 

cotyledons GYMNOSPERMS- 

Cohort  4.  (D)  Cone-bearing  plants  (Pines,  etc.) Coniferee. 

Class  3.  Leaves  parallel- veined  (rarely  netted).  Flowers  3-parted. 
Bark,  wood,  and  pith  commingled.  Embryo  with  but  one 

cotyledon.    Root  not  axial MONOCOTYLEDONES. 

Cohort  5.  (E)  Flowers  on  a  spadix Spadiciflorae. 

Cohort  6.  (F)  Floral  envelope  in  two  3-parted  whorls,  outer 

one  green  (Lillies,  etc.) Petaloidee. 

Cohort  7.  (G)  Floral  envelope,  chaff-like  (Grasses  and  Grains) Glumiferse. 

Sub-kingdom  II.    Flowerless  Plants CRYPTOG AMIA. 

Class  1.  Vascular  Cryptogams  (Ferns,  and  their  allies) PTERIDOPHYTA. 

Cohort  1.  (H)  Stem,  herbaceous,  rooting,  or  tree-like Llcopodinse. 

Cohort  2.  (I)  Stem,  stiff,  channeled  (Rushes) Equisetaceee. 

Cohort  3.  (J)  Stem  a  creeping  Rhizome  or  erect  leaves  pin- 

ni-veined,  veins  forked  (Ferns  proper) Filicinee* 


A.    COHORT  I.    POLYPETALOUS  DICOTYLEDONES. 

*  Herbs  with  the  leaves  alternate  or  all  radical.  .(12) 

*  Herbs  with  the  leaves  opposite  on  the  stem.  .(9) 

*  Shrubs,  trees,  or  undershrubs . .  (2) 

2  Flowers  regular  or  nearly  so . .  (8) 

8  Flowers  irregular  (or  the  fruit  a  legume)  (§  165).  .(/•) 

3  Polyandrous,— stamens  3—10  times  as  many  as  the  petals..  (4) 

3  Oligandrous,— stamens  1—2  times  as  many  as  the  petals  or  fewer.  .(6) 


212  ANALYSIS    OF    THE    NATURAL    OKDERS. 

4  Leaves  opposite .  (s) 
4  Leaves  alternate.. (5) 

5  Stamens  on  the  torus  or  the  hypogynous  corolla.  .(0 
5  Stamens  and  petals  on  the  calyx  tube. .  (v) 

6  Ovaries  simple,  distinct,  or  one  only.    Vines  or  erect  shrubs,  .(w) 
6  Ovary  compound,  and  wholly  adherent  to  the  calyx    (x) 
6  Ovary  compound  aud  free  from  the  calyx  or  nearly  so. .  (7) 

7  Stamens  opposite  to  the  petals  and  of  the  same  number,  .(y) 
7  Stamens  alternate  with  the  petals  or  of  a  different  number.  .(8) 
8  Leaves  opposite  on  the  stems.. (z) 
8  Leaves  alternate,  and  compound.. (yy) 
8  Leaves  alternate  and  simple.. (zz) 

9  Polyandrous— stamens  3—10  tunes  as  many  as  the  petals,  .(m) 
9  Oligandrous,— stamens  1—2  times  as  many  as  the  petals  or  fewer. .  (10) 
10  Pistils  separate  and  distinct,  few  or  solitary,  simple,  .(n) 
10  Pistils  united  into  a  compound  ovary  free  from  the  calyx.  .(11) 
10  Pistils  united  into  a  compound  ovary  adherent  to  the  calyx,  .(o) 
11  Stamens  opposite  to  the  petals  and  of  the  same  number. .  (p) 
11  Stamens  alternate  with  the  petals  or  of  a  greater  number,  .(q) 
12  Flowers  regular  or  nearly  so.    Fruit  never  a  legume . .  (14) 
12  Flowers  irregular  (rarely  regular  and  the  fruit  a  legume). . (13) 
13  Stamens  numerous,  3  or  more  times  as  many  as  the  petals. .  (k) 
13  Stamens  few  and  definite,  4— 12.  .(I) 

14  Stamens  (or  anthers)  3—10  times  as  many  as  the  petals . .  (15) 
14  Stamens  few  and  definite.    Ovary  free  from  the  calyx.  .(17) 
14  Stamens  few  and  definite.    Ovary  adherent  to  the  calyx. . (J) 
15  Stamens  hypogynous— inserted  on  the  torus.  .(16) 
15  Stamens  perigynous— inserted  on  the  corolla  at  the  base,  .(c) 
15  Stamens  perigynous— inserted  on  the  calyx  at  the  base . .  (d) 
16  Pistils  few  or  many,  distinct  (at  least  as  to  the  styles),  .(a) 
16  Pistils  (and  styles  if  any)  completely  united. .  (b) 
17  Pistils  one,  or  indefinite  and  distinct,  simple . .  (e) 
17  Pistils  definitely—*  2  united,  the  short  styles  combined  into  one..(f) 
—*  2,  8  or  4  united,  styles  or  stigmas,  2,  3,  4  or  6. .  (g) 
— *  5,  distinct  or  united,  with  5  distinct  styles.  .(A) 
— *  5,  united  and  the  styles  also  combined  into  one. .  (i) 

a  Petals  5  or  more,  deciduous.    Leaves  never  peltate KANUNCULACE^E. 

a  Petals  3  or  numerous.    Water  plants  with  peltate  leaves \ 

o  Sepals  4—6,  equal.    Petals  OO,  imbricated  in  the  bud.. . .  f 

b  Sepals  5,  equal.    Petals  5,  imbricate.    Leaves  tubular SABBACENIACE.E.  8 

b  Sepals  5,  unequal.    Petals  5,  convolute.    Flowers  of  2  sorts CISTACE^E.  15 

b  Sepals  2,  with— bb  5  petals  imbricated  in  the  bud POBTULACCACE.E.  20 

— bb  4  or  8  petals  usually  crumpled  in  bud   PAPAVEBACE.E.  9 

c  Filaments  united  into  a  tube.    Anthers  1-celled MALVACEAE.  23 

d  Sepals  2,  persistent,  capping  the  lid  of  the  pyxis POBTULACCACE^E.  20 

d  Sepals  3—5,  valvate  in  the  bud.    Pod  long,  2-carpelled TILIACE.E.  25 

d  Sepals  3— 5.— dd  Petals  imbricate  in  bud.    Fruits  simple ROSACEJE.  44 

— dd  Petals  convolute  in  bud.    Fruit  compound  — LOASACE^E.  55 

e  Stamens  opposite  to  the  petals  and  of  the  same  number.  Pistil  1  only.  .BEBBEBIDACE^E.  6 

e  Stamens  alternate  with  the  petals  or  more  numerous RANUNCULACEJS.  1 

/  Stamens  6,  tetradynamous.    Pod  2-celled.    Flowers  cruciform CBUCIFEB^E.  11 

/  Stamens  4—32,  not  tetradynamous.    Pod  1-celled CAPPABIDACE.E.  12 

g  Sepals  5,  unequal.    Flowers  perfect,  numerous,  minute CISTACE^J.  15 

g  Sepals  5,  equal.    Flowers  mono3cious.    Herbs  woolly  or  scurfy OBDEB  113 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    NATUKAL    ORDERS.  213 

g  Sepals  5,  or  3,  equal,  and  the  stamens  twice  as  many GEBANIACE^E.  30 

g  Sepals  5,  and  the  stamens  (anthers)  of  the  same  number,  .(gg) 

gg  Sterile  filam.  numerous,  in  several  whorls.    Climbing. .  .PASSIFLOBACE^E.  57 

gg  Sterile  filaments  numerous,  in  5  clusters.    Herb  erect SAXIFBAGACE.S:.  45 

gg  Sterile  filaments  0.  .(*) 

*  Flowers  white,  racemed.    Climbing ORDER  106 

*  Flowers  yellow.    Plants  erect TUBNEBACE.E.  56 

*  Flowers  cyanic.    Herbs  stemless DROSERACE^S!.  17 

h  Stamens  5,  alternate  with  the  5  petals.    Styles  5  or  3.    Seeds  QO LINAGES.  28 

h  Stamens  5,  opposite  to  the  5  petals.    Styles  5,  but  the  seed  1 f ORDER  83 

h  Stamens  twice  as  many  as  the  petals . .  (hK) 

hh  Stamens  6.    Leaves  peltate NTMPELEACE.S:.  7 

kh  Stamens  6 — 24,  distinct CRASSULACEJB.  46 

hh  Stamens  10,  united  at  base GERANIACE^I.  30 

i  Ovary  1-celled.    Leaves  all  radical,  spinescent,  irritable DBOSEBACEJS.  17 

i  Ovary  3-5  celled.    Leaves  mostly  radical,  not  dotted ORDER  73 

i  Ovary  3-5  celled.    Leaves  cauline,  pinnate,  dotted RUTACEJS.  31 

3  Style  1,  but  the  carpels  as  many  as  the  petals  (2—6) ONAGBACEJE.  54 

j  Styles  3—5,  ovary  3-5-celled,  3-5-seeded,  wholly  adherent ARALIACE^:.  64 

j  Styles  3—8,  ovary  1-celled,  half  adherent.    Sepals  2 PORTULACACE^E.  20 

j  Styles  2,  carpels  2,  fewer  than  the  (5)  petals.—*  Seeds  several SAXIFRAGACE^E.  45 

— *  Seeds  2 UMBELLIFER^:.  63 

k  Ovariee  many,  or  few,  rarely  1,  always  simple KANTJNCULACEJE.  1 

k  Ovary  compound,  3-carpelled,  open  before  ripe RESEDACE^E.  13 

I  Sepals  (4  or  5)  produced  into  1  slender  spur  behind,  petals  2  or  5 GERANIACE.S:.  30 

I  Sepals  2  (or  vanished),  petals  4  (2  pairs)  with  1  or  2  blunt  spurs FUMARIACE.S:.  10 

I  Sepals  5,  very  unequal;  petals  3.    Stamens  6  or  8.    No  spur POLYGALACEJS.  42 

I  Sepals  and  petals  each  of  the  same  number,  viz.  .(ft) 

tt  4,  the  flowers  slightly  irregular.    Stamens  6—32.    No  spur CAPPARIDACEJE.  12 

U  4,  the  flowers  moderately  irregular.    Stamens  8.    A  vine SAPiNDACKas.  37 

tt  5,  with  5  stamens,  and  generally  a  blunt  spur VIOLACBLE.  14 

tt  5,  with  10  or  more  stamens.    No  spur.    Fruit  a  legume LEGTTMTNOSJB.  43 

m  Pistils  many,  entirely  distinct,  simple KANUNCULACEJE.  1 

77i  Pistils  3—5,  united  more  or  less  completely HTPERIOACE^I.  16 

m  Pistils  5—10,  united,  with  sessile  stigmas  and  many  petals FICOIDZLE.  61 

n  Pistil  solitary,  simple.    Petals  6—9.    Stamens  12—18 BERBERIDACE^S.  6 

n  Pistil  3  or  more,  distinct,  simple.     Flowers  all  symmetrical. .  . . CRASSULACEJB.  46 

n  Pistils  2,  consolidated  with  the  5  stamens.    Juice  milky OBDER  100 

o  Carpels  as  many  as  the  sepals,  (nn) 

o  Carpels  fewer  in  number  than  the  sepals,  .(oo) 

nn  Anthers  opening  at  the  top.    Flowers  4-parted MELASTOMACE^:.  52 

nn  Anthers  opening  laterally.    Styles  united  into  1 OKAGRACE^S.  54 

nn  Anthers  opening  laterally.    Styles  or  stigmas  distinct. .  .HALOBAGE.E.  48 

oo  Each  carpel  oc  -seeded.    Styles  2 SAXIFB AGACE.E.  45 

oo  Each  carpel  1-seeded.    Styles  2  or  3 ABALIACEJB.  64 

oo  Each  carpel  1-seeded.    Style  1  (double) COBNACE^.  65 

p  Style  3-cleft  at  the  summit.    Flowers  5-parted POBTULACACE.E.  20 

p  Style  and  stigma  1,  undivided.    Flowers  7-parted OBDER  81 

q  Leaves  pinnate,  with  interpetiolar  stipules ZTGOPHTLLACE.E.  29 

q  Leaves  simple,  toothed  or  lobed.    Flowers  cruciform.    Stamens  6 CBUCIFERS:.  17 

q  Leaves  simple,, toothed  or  lobed.    Flowers  5-merous.    Stamens  10.  ..GEBANIACE^B.  30 
q  Leaves  simple,  entire,  .(qq) 

qq  Petals  and  stamens  on  the  throat  of  the  calyx LYTHBACEJS.  123 

qq  Petals  on  the  torus.  .(*) 


214  ANALYSIS    OF    THE    NATURAL    ORDERS. 

*  Flowers  irregular,  unsymmetrical POLYGALACE.E.  42 

*  Flowers  regular,  2-(or  3-)parted  throughout ELATINACE.E.  18 

*  Flowers  regular,  5-parted.    Leaves  punctate HYPERICACE.E.  16 

*  Flowers  regular,  5-parted.    Leaves  dotless CARYOPHYLLACEJB.  19 

r  Pistil  a  simple  carpel,  becoming  a  legume.    Stamens  10—100 LEGUMINOS.E.  43 

r  Pistil  compound,  viz . .  (rr) 

rr  3-carpelled.    Flowers  perfect.    Leaves  digitate SAPINDACE^E.  37 

rr  3-carpelled.    Flowers  monoecious.    Cultivated .  .BEGONIACE^E.  59 

rr  5-carpelled.— *  Stipules  present.    Cultivated GEKANIACE^J.  30 

— *  Stipules  none.    Native ORDER  78 

s  Stamens  on  the  receptacle,  in  several  sets.    Leaves  dotted HYPERICACEJE.  10 

8  Stamens  on  the  receptacle,  in  1  set.    Lvs.  fleshy.    (S.  Fla)..  Clusia.  GUTTIFERE.  (21) 
Stamens  on  the  calyx . .  (ss) 

88  Sepals,  petals,  and  ovaries  indefinite CALYCANTHACE^E.  3 

88  Sepals,  &c.,  definite.    Leaves  dotted,  entire MYRTACE.SJ.  51 

ss  Sepals,  &c.,  definite.    Leaves  dotless,  entire LYTHRACE^B.  53 

88  Sepals,  &c.,  definite.    Leaves  dotless,  subdentate SAXIFRAGACE^E.  45 

t  Filaments  united  into  1  set  (monadelphous).    Petals  convolute.  .<w) 
t  Filaments  united  into  1  or  several  sets.    Petals  imbricate . .  (uu) 
t  Filament  distinct.. (tf) 

tt  Petals  6,  valvate,  lurid.    Erect  shrubs ANONACE.S:.  4 

it  Petals  3—9,  imbricate.    Trees  or  shrubs MAGNOLIACE^E.  2 

tt  Petals  4—8,  imbricate.    Climbing  or  trailing MENISPEHMACE^E.  5 

tt  Petals  4,  imbricated.    Shrubs,  S CAPPARIDACE^E.  12 

u  Anthers  1-celled.    Sepals  valvate  in  the  bud MALVACEAE.  23 

u  Anthers  2-celled.    Sepals  valvate.    Handsome  tree  STERCULIACE^E.  24 

u  Anthers  2-celled.  Sepals  imbricate.  A  large  tree  in  S.  Fla-.CANELLACEuE.  (22) 
uu  Leaves  punctate  with  pellucid  dots,  jointed  to  stalk.  .AURANTIACE^E.  32 
uu  Leaves  opaque.  .(*) 

*  Sepals  valvate.    Flowers  small TILIACEJE.  25 

*  Sepals  imbricate.    Flowers  large CAMELLIACE^E.  26 

v  Style  1,  with  many  stigmas.    Green  fleshy  shrubs CACTACE^E.  60 

v  Styles  several  or  1,  each  with  1  stigma.    Woody  trees  or  shrubs ROSACES.  44 

v  Style  1,  with  1  stigma.    Stam.  in  5  sets,  long,  red,  very  showy MYRTACE^E.  51 

w  Trailing  vines,  with  crimson  fls.    Ovaries  OO,  in  a  little  spike MAGNOLIACE.E.  2 

w  Climbing  vines,  with  white-greenish  fls.    Ova.  2 — 6,  capitate MENISPERMACEJE.  5 

w  Erect  shrubs,  with  yellow  flowers,  6-parted.    Pistil  only  1 BERBERIDACE^J.  6 

w  Erect  shrubs  (S.  Fla.)  with  yellow  fls.  Pistils  5,  2-ovuled,  1-sded . . .  SURIANACE.E.  (62) 

w  Trees,  with  greenish  fls.,—*  and  pinnate  Ivs.  Pist.  3-5,  l-cvuled...SiMARUBACEjE.  34 

—  *  and  simple  leaves.    Follicles  3—5 — STERCULIACE.E.  24 

x  Flowers  4-parted.    Stamens  8.    (Fls.  red  or  roseate,  drooping)..  .ONAGRACEJE.  54 
x  Flowers  4-parted.    Sta.  8.  Fls.  light  yellow.  Coasts,  S.  Fla..RHizopoRACE^E.  (49) 

x  Flowers  4-parted.    Stamens  4.    Flowers  whitish,  in  cymes CORNACE^E.  65 

x  Flowers  5-parted . .  (xx) 

xx  Ovary  5-carpelled,  5-styled,  5-seeded ARALIACE^E.  64 

xx  Ovary  5-carpelled,  1-styled,  1-seeded.    S.  Fla COMBRETACE^E.  50 

xx  Ovary  2-4  carpelled,  OC-seeded SAXIFRAGACE.E.  45 

y  Leaves  opposite.    Stem  climbing  with  tendrils  or  radicles . . . VITACE.E.  41 
y  Lvs.  alternate.  St.  erect,  or  climbing  without  tendrils. .  RHAMNACE-E.  40 

z  Leaves  simple.    Stamens  5.    Carpels  3—5,  style  1,  short CELASTRACE^E.  38 

z  Leaves  simple.    Sta.  10.    Carpels  and  sty.  3.  S.  Fla..Bym>mwa,MALPiGHiACE,E.  (39) 

z  Leaves  pinnate,  or  palmately  lobed.    Carpels  and  styles  2  or  3 SAPINDACE.E.  37 

z  Leaves  pinnate.  .(*) 

*  Stamens  10.    Small  tree  with  blue  flowers.    S.  Fla ZYGOPHYULACE.E.  29 

*  Stamens  2.    Carpels  lor  3.    Style  1 OBDBR  101 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS.         215 

*  StamensS.    Carpel  and  style  1 BUBSERACE,*:.  35 

yy  Filaments  10,  united  into  a  tube  or  cup.    Flowers  in  panicles MELIACE^.  21 

W  Filaments  6—10,  distinct.    Flowers  small,  white,  in  racemes BURSERACE^E.  35 

yy  Filaments  6—10,  distinct.   Fls.  small,  white  or  hoary,  paniculate. .  SAPINDACILE.  81 
yy  Filaments  5,  distinct.. (*) 

*  Leaves  pellucid-punctate RUTACE.&.  81 

*  Leaves  opaque.    Ovary  1-celled,  1-seeded ANAOARDIACE^E.  36 

tz  Petals  4,  yellow,  strap-shaped,  appearing  in  late  Autumn HAMAMELACE.-E.  47 

zz  Petals  4—7,  cyanic  (rarely  yellow),  rounded  or  short.. (t) 

t  Style  0,  the  stigmas  1,  4,  or  5,  sessile.    Drupe  4-6-seeded ORDEB  74 

t  Styles  (or  stigmas)  3,  but  the  drupe  only  1-seeded ANACARDIACE^E.  36 

t  Styles  3,  capsule  many-sded.  Lvs.  minute  and  pcale-form . . TAMARISCINEJE.  24  ftw 
t  Style  l,..Ct) 

$  Capsule  3-seeded.    Seeds  with  a  scarlet  aril CELASTRACE^E.  38 

J  Caps.  00-seeded.  Clusters  fragrant.  Lvs.  evergreen.  Cult.  ..PITTOBPORAC**. 
$  Capsule  with  few  or  many  seeds.    Native  shrubs ORDER  7c 


B.    COHORT  2.    GAMOPETALOUS  DICOTYLEDONES. 

Stamens  (6—  00)  more  numerous  than  the  lobes  of  the  corolla.  .(9) 
Stamens  (2—12)  fewer  than  the  corolla  lobes  or  of  the  same  number. .  (2) 
2  Ovary  inferior, =adherent  to  the  tube  of  the  calyx.. (3) 
2  Ovary  superior, = free  from  the  tube  of  the  calyx. .  (4) 
3  Stamens  cohering  by  their  anthers,  .(c) 
8  Stamens  entirely  distinct.. (d) 

4  Flowers  regular  and  the  stamens  symmetrical.  .(5) 

4  Flowers  regular  and  the  stamens  reduced  to  2  or  4.  .(n) 

4  Flowers  irregular.    Stamens  (except  in  3  or  4  species)  unsymmetrical.  .(01 

5  Stamens  opposite  to  the  lobes  of  the  corolla  (and  distinct),  .(e) 

6  Stamens  alternate  with  the  corolla  lobes  (rarely  connate).. (6) 

6  Shrubs,  trees,  with  the  carpels  or  stigmas  3 — 6..(/) 
6  Herbs  1-10-carpelled,  or  shrubs 2-carpelled..(7) 
7  Ovary  1,  deeply  4-parted  or  4-partible,  forming  4  achenia. .(g) 
1  Ovaries  2,  distinct  (often  covered  by  the  stamens) ..  (h) 
7  Ovary  1,  compound,—*  one-celled.. (k) 

— *  two-six-celled.. (m) 

9  Flowers  irregular  (rarely  regular  and  the  fruit  a  legume).. (a) 
•  Flowers  regular  and  the  fruit  never  a  legume  (§  165).  .(J) 

a  Flowers  1-  or  2-sided,  with  1  or  2  blunt  spurs.    Stamens  6,  in  2  sets. .  .ORDER  1C 
a  Flowers  1-sided,  no  spur..(*) 

*  Leaves  compound.    Fruit  a  legume ORDER  48 

*  Leaves  simple.    Fruit  2-celled,  2-seeded ORDER  42 

*  Leaves  simple.    Fruit  5-celled ERICACEAE.  73 

6  Corolla  lobes  convolute  in  bud.    Stamens  00,  united  into  1  tube ORDER  23 

6  Corolla  lobes  imbricate  in  bud.    Stamens  00,  in  1  or  several  sets  — ORDER  26 
6  Corolla  lobes  imbricate  or  valvate. .  (u) 

u  Stamens  10—24.    Styles  5— 12 ORDER  46 

«  Stamens  5—10.    Style  1.    Capsule  5-celled EBICACE^:.  73 

v  StamensS—  00.    Style  1.    Nut  1-5-seeded STTBACAdtB.  76 

«Btemen88.    Style»4.    BerrySaeeded EBKNACKJS.  71 

u  Stamens  8.     Stylo  1.    Drupe  1-secded OLAOAOHA  80  (p.  447) 


216  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS. 

e  Flowers  in  a  compact  head  surrounded  by  an  involucre  ..............  COMPOSITE.  7C 

c  Flowers  separate,  irregular,  perfect.    Plants  erect  or  trailing  .......  LOBELIACEJE.  71 

e  Flowers  separate,  regular,  imperfect.    Weak  vines  _____  ..................  ORDER  58 

d  Leaves  alternate.    Flowers  5-parted,  regular,  separate  .....  CAMPANULACE.E.  72 

d  Leaves  alternate.  Fls.  irregular,  5-parted.  S.  Fla..Sccevola.  GOO'DENIACE^E.  (71$; 
d  Leaves  opposite,  with  stipules  between,  or  verticillate  ..........  RUBIACE^E.  61 

d  Leaves  opposite.    Stipules  none.  .  (v) 

v  Stamens  5  —  4.    Ovaries  2-5-celled  .......................  CAPRIFOLIACE^E.  66 

v  Stamens  2—  3.    Ovaries  1-celled  .........................  VALERIANACE.E,  68 

o  Stamens  4.    Flowers  capitate  ................................  DIPSACE.E.  69 

e  Herbs.    Ovary  with  5  styles  and  but  1  seed  ................  PLUMBAGINACE^E.  83 

€  Herbs.    Ovary  with  1  style  and  many  seeds  ....................  PRIMULACEJS.  81 

e  Trees  or  shrubs.    Appendages  between  the  stamens  ............  SAPOTACE^E.  78 

•  Trees  or  shrubs.    No  appendages  between  the  stam.    S.  Fla.  .  MTRSINACE^E.  (79) 
/  Leaves  opposite.  Style  1.  Drupe  4-seeded.  Herbs,  shrubs..  VERBSNACE^E.  90 
/  Leaves  alternate.  .  (w) 

w  Drape  4-6-seeded.    Shrubs,  trees  ....................  AQUIFOLIACE.E.  74 

w  Drupe  1-seeded.    Thorny.    S.  Fla  ...........  Ximenia.  OLACACE.E.  (80) 

tc  Capsule  2-5-celled,  QO-seeded  ...........................  ERICACEJE.  73 

g  Herbs,  with  alternate  leaves,  generally  rough-hairy  .....  BORRAGINACE.E.  92 

k  Stigmas  connate.    Flower  bud  convolute  .............  APOCYNACE^E.  99 

A  Stigmas  connate.    Flower  bud  valvate  ............  ASCLEPIADACEJS.  100 

h  Stigmas  distinct.    Flowers  minute,  yellow  ........  CONYOLVULACEJS.  95 

fc  Ovule  solitary.    Corolla  limb  entire  ..............................  ORDER  103 

ft  Ovules  several.    Leaves  cleft  and  lobed  .............  HYDROPHYLLACE^B.  93 

k  Ovules  several.    Leaves  or  leaflets  entire..  (x) 

x  Flowers  not  spicate  ..............................  GENTIANACEJS.  97 


m  Leaves  opposite.    Ovary  2-celled  ..........................  Lou  AKIACE.E.  98 

m  Leaves  alternate.  .  (y) 

m  Leaves  opposite.    Ovary  3-ceUed.    Not  twining..  )       .PQLEMONIACE^.  94 
y  Ovary  3-celled.    Not  twining  ..............  > 

y  Ovary  2-4-celled.  Twining  ......................  CONVOLVULACE.E.  95 

y  Ovary  2-4-celled,  4-seeded.    Erect  ...............  BORRAGINACEJB.  92 

y  Ovary  2-celled,  00-seeded.—  z  Styles  2  .......  HYDROPHYLLACE^E.  93 

—z  Style  1  ...............  SOLANAOEJS.  96 

n  Stamens  4.   Ova.  4-(rarely  1-  or  2-)celled,  with  as  many  sds  .  .  VERBENACE^E.W 
n  Stamens  2.    Ovary  2-celled,  forming  1  or  2  seeds  .............  OLBACEJS.  101 

0  Ovary  deeply  4-parted,  forming  4  (or  fewer)  achenia.  .(p) 

O  Ovary  entire.  4-ovuled,  4-  or  fewer-seeded.    Leaves  opposite..  VEBBENACBJZ.  90 

o  Orary  entire,  00-ovuled,  OO-  or  several-seeded..  («) 

p  Leaves  opposite.    Stems  square.    Stamens  2—4  ...............  LABIATE.  91 

p  Leaves  alternate.    Stems  round.    Stamens  5  ............  BORUAOINACK,*;.  92 

6  Trees  or  climbing  shrubs.    Seeds  winged  ........  .............  BIGNONIACEJS   8€ 

•  Trees.    Seeds  not  winged  .....  SCROPHTTL.  88.     Erect  shrubs  —  ERICACEAE.  73 

Herbs.—**  Leafless  parasites.    Native.    Ovary  1-celled  .....  OROBANCHACE^B.  85 

—68  Leafy  at  base  or  in  the  water.   Flowers  spurred.  .  LENTIBULACEJS.  84 
—ss  Leafy.    Flowers  large,  spurless.    Ovary  1-celled...  GESNERIACEJE.  87 
—  ss  Leafy.    Spurless.    Fruit  4-  or  5-celled  ...........  $  BIGNONIACEJS.  86 

-*?  Leafy.    Fruit  2-celled  .  .  (0 
t  Seeds  on  hooks  or  cups.    Corolla  mostly  convolute  ...........  ACANTHACEJE.  89 

t  SoedH  without  hooks.    Corolla  imbricated  in  the  bad..  .  ..SOAOPHULABXACE^:.  88 

f  Seeds  without  hooks.    Corolla  mostlv  nlicate  ....................  SOLANACEJS.  98 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    NATURAL    ORDERS.  217 

C.    COHORT  3.    APETALOUS  DICOTYLEDONES. 

IMaute  herbaceous,  the  flowers  not  in  aments  (except  Humulus,  114).  .(3) 
Plants  woody,— shrubs  or  trees . .  (8) 

2  Flowers  with  a  regular  calyx  (or  a  calyx-like  involucre).  (3) 

2  Flowers  achlamydeous, — neither  calyx  nor  corolla,  .(k) 

3  Calyx  tube  adherent  to  the  ovary,  limb  lobed,  toothed,  or  entire  .(fl) 

8  Calyx  free  from  the  ovary,  sometimes  enclosing  it.. (4) 

1  Ovaries  several,  entirely  distinct,  each  1-styled,  l-ovuled..(gr) 
4  Ovary  1  only,  simple  or  compound.. (5) 

5  Style  or  stigma  1  only.  .(6) 

5  Styles  or  stigmas  2— 12.  .(7) 

6  Ovary  1-ovuled,  bearing  but  1  seed,  .(if) 

6  Ovary  many-ovuled,  bearing  many  seeds. .  (rf) 

7  Ovary  1-3-ovuled,  1-3-seeded.  .(e) 

7  Ovary  4-  00-ovuled,  4-  CD-seeded,  .(h) 
8  Flowers  not  in  aments,  with  the  leaves  opposite. .(») 
8  Flowers  not  in  aments,  with  the  leaves  alternate.. (10) 
8  Flowers  imperfect,  the  sterile  only  in  aments. .(«) 
8  Flowers  imperfect,  both  the  fertile  and  sterile  in  aments..  (c) 

9  Stamens  1—12,  as  many  or  twice  as  many  as  the  stigmas. .  (a) 
9  Stamens  2—10,  not  symmetrical  with  the  1  or  2  stigmas,  .(ft) 

10  Style  or  stigma  1.    Fruit  1-seeded. . (11) 
10  Styles  or  stigmas  2.  .(s) 
10  Styles  or  stigmas  3—9. .  (Q 

11  Calyx  free  from  the  ovary,  .(p) 
11  Calyx  adherent  to  the  ovary,  .(r) 

a  Stigmas  and  cells  of  the  ovary  1—4.    Stamens  1—8 ORDERS  48,  or  54 

a  Stigmas  and  cells  of  the  ovary  6.    Stamens  6  or  12. .  .ARISTOLOCHIACEJE.  102 

b  Styles  2.    Ovary  many-seeded.    Stamens  8—10 ORDER  45 

b  Style  1.    Ovary  1-  or  2-seeded.    Stamens  5 SANTALACE^E.  110 

e  Flowers  perfect.    Calyx  4-lobed.    Stamens  1 — 4 ORDER  44 

e  Flowers  perfect.   Calyx  entire,  funnel-shaped,  colored.  .NYCTAGINACE^E.  101 

e  Flowers  diclinous.    Calyx  4-5-parted,  green URTICAOKS.  114 

d  Stamens  4,  opposite  to  the  4  sepals.    Leaves  numerous ORDER  5C 

d  Stamens  4,  opposite  to  the  4  sepals.    Leaves  about  6 ORDER  145 

d  Stamens  5,  alternate  with  the  5  sepals ORDER  81 

d  Stamens  CO.    Leaves  large  and  showy.    Cultivated ORDER  9 

«  Fruit  3-(rarely  6-)seeded,  with  3  (often  cleft)  styles EUPHORBIACEJE.  113 

e  Fruit  1-seeded.    Stipules  sheathing  the  stems .POLYGONAOE^E.  104 

€  Fruit  1-celled,  mostly  1 -seeded.    Stipules  none.  (/) 

f  Calyx  with  scarious  bractlets  outside AMARANTACE^E.  107 

/  Calyx  naked  (double  in  1  genus).   Lvs.  alternate. .  CHENOPODIACE.E.  106 

/  Calyx  naked.    Leaves  opposite ORDER  18 

g  Stamens  hypogynous— on  the  torus ORDER  1 

g  Stamens  perigynous — on  the  calyx ORDER  44 

h  Leaves  opposite.    Fruit  circumscissile,  a  pyxis ORDER  61 

h  Leaves  opposite.    Fruit  4-5-valved,  a  capsule ORDER  19 

h  Leaves  alternate ..  (i) 

i  Fruit  5-horned,  5-celled,  a  capsule ORDER  40 

i  Fruit  a  fleshy  4-10-seeded  berry PHTTOI.ACCACEJB:.  105 

i  Fruit  circumscissile,  a  utricle  AMARASTACE^E.  107 

4  Flowers  on  a  spadix  with  a  spathe.    Monocotyledons ORDBS  180 

It  Flowers  in  a  long  naked  spike.    Stamens  6  or  7 SAURTTRI OKLH,  1 1 5 

ft  Flowers  solitary,  axillary,  minute.    Aquatic  plants. . (tn) 


218         ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS. 

m  Stamen  1,  styles  2.    Leaves  opposite CALLITRI  JHACE^E.  lie 

m  Stamens  2,  styles  2.  Leaves  alternate,  dissected.  .PODOSTEMIACE>E.  ll'i 
m  Sta.  12-24,  style  1.  Lvs.  verticillate,  dissected.. CERATOPHYLLACE.E.  118 

n  Fruit  a  double  samara  (2-winged) ORDER  7i 

n  Fruit  a  single  samara  (1-winged),  or  a  drupe.    Stamens  2 ORDER  101 

n  Fruit  not  winged,— o  3-seeded.    Stamens  4 EUPHORBIACE.E.  113 

— o  1-seeded.    Stamens  4  or  8 ELEAGNACE^.  112 

— o  1-seeded.   Stamens  3.   Parasites.. LORANTHACE^B.  109 

p  Anthers  opening  by  valves.    Calyx  colored LAURACE.E.  108 

p  Anthers  opening  by  slits.— q  Calyx  colored.    Stam.  8 THYMELACE^E.  Ill 

— q  Calyx  greenish  ;  racemed ORDER  37 

— q  Cal.  green ;  spiked.  S.  Fla.  .COMBRETACE.E.  (50) 

r  Ovary  and  seed  only  1,  in  the  juicy  drupe.    Trees ORDER  65 

r  Ovaries  2—4,  seed  1.    Fruit  a  drupe  or  nut.    Shrubs. .  .SANTAXACE^E.  110 

*  Stamens  numerous ORDER  47 

0  Stamens  as  many  as  the  calyx  lobes §  1.    URTICACE^;.  114 

t  Leaves  pinnate.    Pistils  5,  scarcely  united ORDER  31 

t  Leaves  simple,  linear,  evergreen.    Shrubs  heath-like.  .EMPETRACE^:.  119 
t  Leaves  simple,  expanded.  Fls.  3-parted.  Fruit  dry..  EUPHORBIACE.E.  113 

t  Leaves  simple,  expanded.   Fls.  4-  or  5-parted.   Fruit  fleshy ORDER  40 

c  Nut  drupaceous,  naked.    Leaves  pinnate JUGLANDACE^B.  121 

v  Nut  or  nuts  in  a  cup  or  involucre.    Leaves  simple CUPULIFERJE.  122 

X  Fruit  fleshy,  aggregated  (sorosis).   Juice  (or  sap)  milky ...§  2.   URTICACEJE.  11.4 
e  Fruit  dry.    Plants  with  a  watery  juice  or  sap . .  (y) 

y  Aments  globular,  racemed.    Nutlets  2-celled,  woolly ORDER  65 

y  Aments  globular,  solitary.    Nutlets  1-celled,  1-aeeded PLATANACE^E.  120 

y  Aments  cylindrical  or  oblong,  .(z) 

z  Ovary  2-celled,  2-ovuled,  1-seeded.  Fruit  often  winged..  BETULACE^E.  123 

z  Ovary  1-celled,  1-seeded.    Fruit  often  fleshy MYRICACEJS.  124 

*  Ovary  many-ovuled,  many-seeded.    Seeds  comous SALICACE.E.  126 


D.    COHORT  4.    THE  CONOIDS. 

*  Leaven  pinnate.    Stem  simple,  palm-like.    Sterile  flowers  in  cones CYCADACE^E.  12ft 

*  Leaves  simple.    Stem  branching.    Fertile  flowers  in  cones CONIFERS.  121 

*  Leaves  simpie.    Stem  branching.    Fertile  flowers  solitary TAXACE^E.  12? 


E.    COHORT  5.    THE  SPADICEOUS  MONOCOTYLEDONES. 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  palmi-cleft  leaves  all  from  one  terminal  bud,  I     j»ALMAOBA  j  jo 

and  a  branching  "spadix"  from  a  spathe.. '" 

Herbs  with  simple,  rarely  ternate  leaves.    Spadix  simple.  .(2) 

2  Plants  frond-like,  minute,  floating  loose  on  the  water LEMNACE^E.  131 

2  Plants  with  stem  and  leaves,  rooting  and  fixed. .  (3) 

3  Spadix  evident,  in  a  spathe  or  on  a  scape ARACEJB.  130 

S  Spadix  obscure  or  spike-like.    Stems  leafy.  .(4) 

4  Flowers  with  no  perianth,  densely  spicatc  or  capitate TYPHACE^E.  139 

4  Flowers  with  a  perianth  or  not.    Plants  submersed NAIADACEJE,  188 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    NATURAL    ORDERS.  219 


**.    COHORT  6.    FLORIDE2E,  OB  FLOWERING  MONOCOTYLEDON  ES. 

Flowers  (not  on  a  spadix)  in  a  small,  dense,  involucrate  head. .(o) 
Flowers  (not  on  a  spadix)  solitary,  racemed,  spicate,  &c.'.(2) 
2  Perianth  tube  adherent  to  the  ovary  wholly  or  partly.  .(4) 
8  Perianth  free  from  the  ovary.  (3) 

8  Petals  and  sepals  differently  colored  (except  in  Medeola,  147).. (0) 
3  Petals  and  sepals  similarly  colored.  .(5) 
4  Flowers  imperfect  (3  ?  or  &  fi  ?)..(a) 
4  Flowers  perfect.. (6) 

5  Leaves  net-veined,  broad.. (k) 
5  Leaves  parallel-veined.. (6) 

6  Styles  and  often  the  stigmas  also  united  into  one.  .(m) 
6  Styles  and  etigmas  3,  distinct.. (») 

a  Low  aquatic  herbs HYDROCHARIDACEJE.  '<38 

a  Climbing  shrubby  vines DIOSCORIACE^E.  143 

b  Anthers  1  or  2,  on  the  pistil  (gynandrous) ORCHIDACE.B.  137 

b  Anthers  1  or  5,  free  from  the  pistil.    Leaves  ample SCITAMINB^E.  138 

b  Anthers  3  or  6.. (c) 

c  Perianth  woolly  or  mealy  outside.    Ovary  half  free HJEMADORACE.B   141 

e  Perianth  glabrous  outside. .  (d) 

d  Anthers  3,  opening  crosswise,  inward BURMANNIACE.E.  136 

d  Anthers  3,  opening  lengthwise,  outward IRIDACE^E.  142 

d  Anthers  6,  opening  inward AMARYLLIDACE^E.  139 

0  Pistils  3—  00,  distinct,  forming  achenia  in  fruit ALISMACE.E.  134 

Pistils  3  only,  more  or  less  united,  .(g) 

g  Leaves  verticillate,  in  1  or  2  whorls.    Stigmas  3 TRILLIACE.E.  146 

g  Leaves  alternate. .  (h) 

h  Stigmas  3.    Plants  with  dry  leaves,  often  epiphytes BROMELIACE^E.  140 

h  Stigmas  united  into  1 COMMELTNACE^E.  151 

k  Flowers  perfect,  4-parted ROXBURGHIACE^E.  145 

k  Flowers  dioecious,  6-parted SMILACE^E.  144 

m  Flowers  colored,  regular.    Stamens  6  (4  in  one  species) LILIACE^E.  147 

m  Flowers  colored,  irregular  or  else  triandrous PONTEDERIACE^E.  149 

m  Flowers  greenish,  glume-like  or  scarious JUNCACE^E.  150 

n  Leaves  rash-like.    Ovary-  of  3  1-seeded  carpels I     ]yiELANTHACE^B    143 

n  Leaves  linear,  lanceolate,  &c.    Ovary  6-  00  -seeded. . .  ' 

o  Petals  yellow,  small  but  showy.    Plant  acaulescent XYRIDACE^.  152 

o  Petals  white,  minute,  fringed.    Plant  acaulescent EKIOCAULONACE^:.  154 


G.    COHORT  7.    GRAMINOIDE^E,  OR  GRASS-LIKE  MONOCOTYLEDONES. 

Flowers  with  6  bracts  in  2  whorls  (sepals  and  petals).    Culms  solid ORDER  150 

Flower  with  a  single  bract  (glume).    Culm  solid,  sheaths  entire CTPERACE^B  153 

Flower  with  several  bracts  (glumes  and  pales).    Culm  hollow.  I  n 

Sheaths  split  on  one  side.    Ovary  1-seeded.    Styles  2 > WRAMINE.E  ] 


SUB-KINGDOM  n.    CLASS  I.    COHORTS  1,  2,  and  3. 

Plants  with  well-developed  foliage.  .(5). 
t  Leaves  few,  mostly  ample  and  from  subterranean  rhizomes ,,  (a) 


220 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    NATURAL    ORDERS. 


a  Fruit  borne  on  the  leaves  which  are  often  more  or  less  contracted.  .FTLICES.  169 
1  Leaves  numerous,  small,  mostly  spirally  Mnbricated  on  the  stem.  .(6) 

b  Fruit  axillary,  sessile,  opening  by  a  slit LTCOPODIACEJE.  157 

§  Plants  with  verticillate  branches  instead  of  leaves,  .(e) 

c  Fruit  in  terminal  spikes EQUISETACE.E.  158 


oy  THB 

!trinraasiTT] 

&. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAL 


IBRAEY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


•«  10 


aiov  11 


OCT  13  , 

AY  14 


JAN  CO 


1926 


30m-6,'14 


